La copropriété des immeubles bâtis revêt une importance particulière, étant donné qu’elle est influencée par plusieurs facteurs. Le facteur socio-culturel de la composition de la société libanaise et celui du problème de déplacés de guerre, occupent une part considérable dans l’étude de la copropriété. On relève des problèmes, issus de la confusion entre le juridique et le réel. L’expansion économique et immobilière, depuis la fin de la guerre, a poussé un grand nombre de libanais à se concentrer dans les grandes villes et leurs banlieues dans l’objectif du travail ou d’éducation. Cette concentration a provoqué une activité dans le domaine des bâtiments. Divers problèmes sont rencontrés dans ce domaine, d’une part à cause de l’absence des réglementations opportunes et d’autre part, suite à des divergences dans la jurisprudence. En prenant en considération tous ces facteurs, nous tenterons de trouver des solutions à des gros problèmes en se référant, quand le cas se présente, aux lois et jurisprudences françaises. / The co-ownership of buildings has a particular importance, given the fact that it is influenced by many factors. The socio-cultural factor of the composition of the Lebanese society and that of the problem of the displaced persons (DP) during the Lebanese war, occupy a considerable part in the study of co-ownership. We note several problems that arise from the confusion between law and reality. The economic and real-estate expansion, since the end of the war, caused a large part of the Lebanese population to concentrate in large cities and their suburbs either for education or work. This concentration provoked an activity increase in the construction field. Diverse problems are encountered in this field, due to the absence of appropriate regulations on one hand, or due to divergences in the jurisprudence on the other hand. By taking into consideration all these factors, we attempt to find solutions to major problems, by referring, when the case arises, to the French laws and jurisprudence.

The legal institution of settlement of property Summary The purpose of my thesis is to analyse the legal institution of settlement of property, an institution which constitutes an important part of legal order, and to point out the problems, difficulties and questions frequently arising out of practice, out of regular encounters with different branches of law, where we can find the institute of settlement. The reason for my research is to characterise several types of settlements of property, make a brief description of each of them, to point out their distinctive features and to examine the interplay of legal institution as described in law with it's real, day to day application influenced by day to day life. The thesis is composed of four chapters, each of them dealing with different aspects of legal institution of settlement of property. Chapter One is introductory and defines basic principles of settlement of property, it's history, the changes and the evolution of this institute. Chapter Two is subdivided into five parts, each of them dealing with one type of settlement of property, including settlement of residential property, and introducing their basic principles and rules. Chapter Three, consisting of five parts, examines the types of settlement of property more profoundly, dealing with relevant...

The Plurality of Persons Regarding Ownership - General Issues Resumé The aim of this diploma thesis is to analyze some of the issues concerning the plurality of persons regarding ownership which have been brought by the Act of the Czech Republic No. 89/2012 Sb. Civil Code ('the Civil Code 2012'), which has come into effect on 1 January 2014. The thesis is divided into five chapters. The first chapter is devoted to the sources which were the main inspiration for the authors of the Civil Code 2012. The main sources were the Civil Code of Austria (Allgemeines Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch) and the bill of Civil Code proposed by the Czechoslovak government in 1937. The chapter emphasizes the fact that it is necessary to take these sources into consideration when analyzing legal regulation contained in the Civil Code 2012. The truth of this statement is proved throughout the whole text of the thesis since many references concerning these sources are made. The following chapter describes two legal forms of co-ownership that exist in the Czech legal system: common ownership and co-ownership in which shares of co-owners do not exist (e.g. community property). The chapter shows similarities and differences between these forms. The third and the fourth chapter are the core of this diploma thesis. The third chapter answers...

The Diploma thesis focuses on the current legislation of residential co-ownership, especially of administration of a building and tract of land. Its content is divided into two parts. The aim of the first part of the thesis is to present fundamental interpretation of an institute of residential co-ownership which is one of the types of co-ownership with a large number of specifics. The thesis includes also an outline of its historical development, an analysis of conceptual theories of residential co-ownership and explanation of essential terms of the institute. As one of the most important terms is considered the term unit. For correct understanding the thesis explains also other terms which the legislation of the unit expressly operates with. The relevant examples are the terms flat, commercial premises, building and tract of land and share of a building and tract of land. The first part of the thesis serves to obtain fundamental information about an institution of residential co-ownership and its essential elements that will be used during a deeper research in the second part. The second part of the thesis deals with comprehensive legislation analysis of administration of a building and tract of land. The constituent chapters include a definition of administration of a building and tract of land,...

1 Residential co-ownership in the light of the amendment to the Civil Code effective from 1st July 2020 Abstract In this thesis I deal with the institute of residential co-ownership and the changes brought by Act No. 163/2020 Coll., amending Act No. 89/2012 Coll., the Civil Code, as amended, and other related acts. This amendment to the Civil Code fundamentally interferes with the legal regulation of residential co-ownership, ie also with the provisions concerning an association of unit owners with which I deal mainly in this thesis. For its clarity, the thesis is divided into parts in which I try to systematically present the changes that the above-mentioned amendment to the Civil Code has brought. An important part of the thesis is also a comparison of the changes with the regulation effective before 1st July 2020. In the introduction, I first present the subject of research in general and then in a short historical excursion I approach the development of residential ownership in our territory. In my opinion, the main point is the view into the last century, where co-ownership respectively residential ownership changed the most. In connection with the historical development, it is important to mention the legal principle of superficies solo cedit. This principle, known since the second century AD, has an...

La nature du droit du copropriétaire immobilier et du droit du propriétaire d’un volume immobilier est généralement présentée en termes d’opposition. L’opposition entre ces deux droits est la résultante de la définition classique de la propriété comme une somme d’attributs sur la chose. La nature de droit réel de la propriété a pareillement exclu une lecture commune de ces droits. Pourtant, en présence d’une copropriété des immeubles bâtis comme d’un volume immobilier, une chose complexe identique existe : une chose-lot, laquelle est dotée d’un statut juridique. Seule une lecture nouvelle de la propriété permet de mettre en lumière cette identité de nature juridique. S’en suit une évolution possible des régimes de la copropriété des immeubles bâtis et de la division en volumes. Parce que la nature de ces droits est semblable, les domaines d’application respectifs de ces structures de division de l’immeuble peuvent être repensés. Des concepts communs aux divisions de l’immeuble peuvent être dessinés. Une nouvelle catégorie juridique pourra alors être proposée : celle d’une propriété insérée dans une division de l’immeuble. / The legal nature of the co-ownership of built property and division by volumes is generally presented in terms of opposition. The opposition between these two rights is the result of the traditional definition of property as a sum of attributes over the property. The right in rem nature of ownership has similarly excluded a reading of these two rights as complex properties. However, in the presence of co-ownership of built property or a volume within a property, an identical complex property exists : a lot property, which is endowed with legal status. Only a new reading of ownership can shed light on the legal nature of this identity. This entails a possible change to their legal systems. Because the nature of these rights is similar, a fresh look can be taken at their respective scope. Concepts common to the divisions in the building can be sketched out. A new legal category could then be proposed : that of a property inserted into a division in the building.

Le droit de propriété, théoriquement absolu, est restreint dans le cadre de la copropriété divise étant donné le contexte individuel et collectif dans lequel il s’exerce. En fait, l’intérêt collectif peut lui imposer des restrictions, mais à certaines conditions. L’une d’entre elles, essentielle, est le respect de la destination de l’immeuble. Or, la notion de destination de l'immeuble ne fait l'objet d'aucune disposition législative permettant de la définir. Afin de préciser cette notion, deux conceptions ont été développées. La première est à l’effet qu’on doit tenir compte, dans la recherche de la destination de l'immeuble, de ses caractères et de sa situation. La deuxième prévoit plutôt qu'il faut distinguer ces trois éléments. Même si la première thèse est majoritairement admise en jurisprudence, nous croyons que les tribunaux interprètent trop largement cette notion, qui devrait être mieux circonscrite. Après une revue de la littérature et une analyse jurisprudentielle, nous développerons notre propre conception de la notion de destination, qui sera une voie mitoyenne entre les deux conceptions établies, et proposerons des améliorations quant à la rédaction de cette clause dans la déclaration de copropriété. / The right of ownership, absolute in theory, is restricted in the context of divided co-ownership because of the individual and collective environment in which it occurs. In fact, the collective interests may impose restrictions which have to respect certain conditions. One of these conditions, essential, is the respect of the destination of the immovable. Unfortunately, the notion of destination of the immovable is not the subject of any legislation to define it. To precise this notion, two concepts have been developed. The first is to the effect that we must take into account in the search for the destination of the immovable, its characteristics and location. The second concept rather provides that we must distinguish destination from characteristics and location. While the first thesis is mostly accepted in jurisprudence, we believe that the courts interpretation of that notion is too extended, which should be more circumscribed. After a review of the literature and a jurisprudence analysis, we will develop our own concept of the notion of destination, which will be a middle ground between the two established concepts, and will propose improvements on the drafting of this clause in the declaration of co-ownership.

Le droit de la copropriété est devenu, comme le soulignait Monsieur le Professeur Ch. ATIAS, « un maquis inextricable, un dédale complexe où l’on se perd d’autant plus aisément que l’harmonisation des dispositions est souvent délicate ». La loi relative à la solidarité et au renouvellement urbains (SRU), la loi pour l’Accès au Logement et un Urbanisme Rénové (ALUR) auxquelles sont venus s’ajouter la loi pour la croissance, l'activité et l'égalité des chances économiques, la loi relative à la transition énergétique pour la croissance verte, les décrets relatifs aux conditions d'exercice des activités relatives à certaines opérations portant sur les immeubles et les fonds de commerce ainsi que le décret relatif aux procédures judiciaires applicables aux copropriétés en difficulté, n’ont pas amélioré la situation dans laquelle se trouve le syndic de copropriété. Outre les questions de droit transitoire il s’agit surtout des difficultés inchangées à déterminer le statut du syndic, la nature des fonctions qui en découlent et la responsabilité qui en résulte, compte tenu des modifications considérables apportées par ces réformes. Nous proposons donc, à travers cette étude, d'envisager l'évolution de la fonction du syndic de copropriété, et du syndicat qu’il représente, afin d'identifier les difficultés soulevées par les nombreuses réformes pour, enfin, s'interroger sur la pertinence du système mis en place par le législateur. / The condominium legislation rules have become – as Professor Ch. ATIAS declares - « an inextricable bush, a very complex tangle where you may easily get lost as the harmonization of legal measures is often delicate ». The law relating to Urban Solidarity and Renewal (i.e. SRU law), the law relating to Housing Access and Renovated Urban Planning (i.e. ALUR law) to which was added the law for growth, activity and equality of economic opportunity, plus the law for energy transition to green growth, plus the decrees relating to the conditions of implementing activities concerning operations about buildings and commercial properties as well as the decree relating to legal procedures concerning co-ownerships having difficulties, did not improve the situation in which the co-ownership management stands. Apart from matters about transitional law, it mainly refers to unchanged difficulties to define the statute of management agent, the nature of the functions and responsibilities that follow considering the numerous modifications brought by those reforms. Thus, by this study, we suggest to consider the evolution of the function of condominium manager and the nature of the condominium it represents in order to identify the difficulties brought up by the too many reforms and finally question about the relevance of the system implemented by the legislator.

L’entreprise familiale est omniprésente; en effet, c’est l'épine dorsale de la vie d'entreprise. Elle est le moteur du développement socio-économique et de la création de richesse dans toutes les nations. Elle apparaît incomparable à l’entreprise non familiale, et unique quant à ses caractéristiques, éléments constitutifs, défis et perspectives. Cependant, la taxonomie légale distinctive de cette entreprise se révèle absente et oubliée partout dans le monde, soit dans les pays du droit Civil ou de Common Law. Ce manque de reconnaissance juridique induit à régler les différends et les litiges survenus en suivant les voies légales classiques; ce qui prouve, généralement, une source d'injustice tant à l'individu qu’à la famille, et suscite des répercussions sociales et économiques remarquables. Par conséquent, afin de concevoir les dynamiques authentiques de cette entreprise, nous avons adopté la théorie de l'écosystème des quatre cercles qui permettra aux juristes de percevoir cette entreprise avec un regard singulier, désormais, en tant qu’une entreprise familiale et non plus en tant qu’une simple entreprise. En outre, cette mosaïque placera la «famille» au niveau de partie prenante « royale » qui subvient aux besoins de l’entreprise et fournie le «capital familial»; ce dernier renvoie souvent aux intangibles tout en évoquant les éléments fondamentaux moteurs qui orientent et dominent cette entreprise, et la transforment en une copropriété collective mixte plutôt qu'une propriété individuelle. Somme toute, une telle classification engendrera une définition juridique distinctive de l’entreprise familiale, ainsi que des arrangements légaux et structurels et des conséquences primordiales. / Family business is omnipresent as the backbone of the corporate life. It is the engine driver of the socio-economic development, and the fundamental source of wealth creation in all nations. Incomparable to nonfamily counterparts, family business reveals unique in its characteristics, constructs, challenges, and prospects. However, the legal differentiated taxonomy of this enterprise reveals absent and forgotten across the globe, whether in the common law system or the civil law system. The lack of the legal recognition of its uniqueness induces jurists to resolve disputes and litigations via the conventional legal channels. This often discloses as the source of injustice for individuals as well as the family, and echoes significant social and economic consequences. Correspondingly, in order to conceive the authentic dynamics of this enterprise, we have embraced the four circles ecosystem theory, which shall allow jurists to visualize this enterprise with a singular eye as a family business, no longer as a business. Besides, this pattern shall reveal the “family” as the “Royal Stakeholder” and the main provider of the “Family Capital”. Thus, the latter unveils the intangibles as the fundamental drivers that guide and control this enterprise, and then turn it into a mixed collective co-ownership, rather than an individual ownership. Ultimately, this classification generates the distinctive legal definition of the family business as well as the relevant arrangements, structures, and unavoidable consequences.

Students with learning difficulties are said by many writers to be prohibited from having a valued learner identity and denied a voice in which to influence their educational circumstances. They are, it is argued, kept submerged in a ‘culture of silence’, where they are homogenised as a deficit category of learners and, therefore, perceived in a one-dimensional way. Such disabling barriers stem from practitioner assumptions and wider sociological influences, which are also part of this same culture. The by-products of this thinking have prevented practitioners from developing more interactive and enabling relationships with their students. Starting with a commitment to listen to student views, and explore accessible, flexible and innovative ways in which to advocate these, the research reported in this thesis sought ways to address this agenda. Set in a further education college, five student co-researchers, four practitioner co-researchers and a facilitator co-researcher embarked on a year long project to learn how the same students could be supported in contributing to their own learning. Being a transparent account, the inquiry was also interested in exploring the difficulties of this endeavour and whether student empowerment would alter the relational dynamics and, therefore, practitioner roles. As the facilitator was instrumental in introducing these ideas, she also examined her own influential role. Data were generated from observations and co-researcher experiences of engaging with roles, body collages, student interviews, photo voice, journals, portfolios and reflective meetings. These exploratory processes and methods were predicated upon the ideological frameworks of the social model of disability and multiple intelligences theory. The study revealed that renegotiated co-researcher roles and body collages were effective processes for enabling reciprocal engagement, causing students to empower themselves and leading practitioners to rethink in ways that had not been anticipated. These processes were also felt to be educationally effective in relation to curriculum aims. Whilst journals and lengthy meetings proved to be impractical and of little use, the reflective journal did prove to be an essential tool for the facilitator, allowing her to draw upon further evidence. The findings indicate that student voice can be raised through collaboration and forging relationships of trust and co-ownership. The thesis concludes by arguing that silences were broken, not least since these collaborative actions are still being used in the particular context in ways that are conducive to everyday practices. Although time and commitment are needed, these are valuable strategies that other marginalised educational communities may benefit from adopting.