Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae, Mycoplasma flocculare e Mycoplasma hyorhinis são capazes de aderir e colonizar o trato respiratório de suínos. Enquanto a presença de M. flocculare é considerada assintomática, M. hyopneumoniae e M. hyorhynis são relacionados ao desenvolvimento de patologias. M. hyopneumoniae é o agente etiológico da pneumonia enzoótica suína e M. hyorhynis além dos pulmões pode atingir outros sítios e hospedeiros, estando relacionado a artrites, poliserosites e desenvolvimento de vários tipos de câncer em humanos. Apesar dos avanços tecnológicos na área de genômica, raros são os dados quanto ao papel de M. flocculare no trato respiratório suíno. Além do mais, informações relativas à transcrição gênica nessas espécies são escassas, apesar da importância desses microrganismos. Neste estudo são apresentados os dados da sequência do genoma de uma linhagem de M. flocculare, bem como do genoma de um novo isolado de M. hyopneumoniae. Com estas novas sequências foram realizadas análises de genômica comparativa visando a identificação de características que pudessem explicar os diferentes comportamentos quanto à patogenicidade dessas espécies. Além disso, a análise global dos transcritomas de cada uma das espécies foi realizada e o perfil transcricional entre M. hyopneumoniae, M. flocculare e M. hyorhynis foi analisado comparativamente objetivando identificar características peculiares para cada um dos mapas transcricionais, além de compreender a coordenação do modo de transcrição gênica em Mycoplasma. De um modo geral, as três espécies de Mycoplasma que habitam o trato respiratório suíno possuem grandes semelhanças na composição gênica, assim como na abundância de transcritos. A análise do repertório transcricional, mostra que os genomas são transcritos quase que em sua totalidade, incluindo as regiões intergênicas, nas três espécies. M. hyopneumoniae e M. flocculare apresentam conteúdo gênico e perfil transcricional muito semelhantes. Uma importante diferença encontrada entre estas duas espécies refere-se à presença exclusiva de genes e transcritos de adesinas específicas. M. hyorhynis possui genes e transcritos exclusivos, os quais sabidamente estão relacionados à sua capacidade mutacional, de invasividade e infecção de diferentes sítios. Por fim, a análise comparativa dos genomas, e a obtenção dos mapas transcricionais para M. hyopneumoniae, M. flocculare e M. hyorhynis, foram abordagens que resultaram em um grande número de informações, as quais são importantes para embasamento de futuros estudos de caracterização dos mecanismos moleculares, como os eventos de regulação da transcrição gênica, no gênero Mycoplasma. / Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae, Mycoplasma hyorhinis and Mycoplasma flocculare are able to adhere and to colonize the swine respiratory tract. While M. flocculare presence is virtually assymptomatic, M. hyopneumoniae and M. hyorhynis infections may cause respiratory disease. M. hyopneumoniae is the causative agent of swine enzootic pneumonia and M. hyorhynis may affect the lungs and other sites in a diversity of hosts and has been related to arthritis, poliserosites and to the development of several types of human cancer. Despite genomics technological advances, there are very few data about the possible role of M. flocculare in the swine respiratory tract. Moreover, little information about gene transcription is available in these species, despite the importance of these microorganisms. In this work the genome sequences of M. flocculare and a new isolate of M. hyopneumoniae are presented. A comparative genomic analyzes was performed to identify possible characteristics that may help to explain the different behaviors of these species in the swine respiratory tracts. Furthermore, a transcriptome map of each species was performed and a comparative transcriptional profile analysis between M. hyopneumoniae, M. flocculare and M. hyorhynis was undertaken to identify the exclusive features for each of the transcriptional maps, in addition to understanding the coordination mode of gene transcription in Mycoplasma. In general, the three Mycoplasma species that inhabit the swine respiratory tract have a similar gene composition as well as the abundance of transcripts. The transcriptome maps showed that most of the predicted genes are transcribed from these Mycoplasma genomes, as well as some intergenic regions. M. hyopneumoniae and M. flocculare present very similar gene content and transcriptional profile. However, an important difference between these two species is related to the exclusive presence of genes and transcripts of some specific adhesins. M. hyorhynis presents exclusive genes and transcripts that have been related to its invasiveness, mutation rate and infection of different sites. Finally, the comparative analysis of the genomes and transcriptional maps between M. hyopneumoniae, M. flocculare and M. hyorhynis have resulted in a large amount of information, which are important for future studies of the molecular characterization, as transcriptional regulation in the Mycoplasma spp.

La découverte de virus géants avec une taille de génome géante et des caractéristiques génomiques surprenantes soulève différentes questions sur leur origine et leur évolution. De nombreuses études phylogénétiques ont souligné le rôle décisif des HGT et des échanges génétiques sur l'évolution des MV, mais la plupart d'entre eux sont basés sur des familles MV étroitement liées. Pour enquêter sur les événements HGT, nous avons déterminé la distribution des gènes et les phylogénies de gènes pour les 86 ORFomes MV complets classés dans 6 familles définies et 4 putatives, dans le cadre de leurs homologues d'autres domaines de la vie. À l'aide d'un flux de travail phylogénétique automatisé MimiLook, 4577 OG ont été détectés, dont 91% des OG ont été jugés spécifiques à la famille, alors que 9% sont représentés par des protéines de 2 familles MV ou plus. 414 OG ont été détectés comme événement HGT. Nous avons appliqué une procédure similaire aux 7 898 protéines non orthologues pour détecter les événements de transfert et identifié 259 HGT à partir de protéines non orthologues. Les cas de HGT révèlent la spécificité des donneurs. En conclusion, une distinction claire peut être observée dans le mosaïque du génome des familles de Megavirale éloignées, où elles ont évolué par spécificité génomique et acquisitions de gènes spécifiques à la famille de leur créneau écologique respectif. Notre recherche systématique d'événements HGT d'origine non-mégavirale fournit la première estimation de la contribution totale de HGT dans le mosaïque du génome spécifique à la famille des Megavirales éloignés. / Discovery of giant viruses with giant genome size and surprising genomic features raises different question about their origin and evolution. Many phylogenetic studies have pointed out decisive role of HGTs and genetic exchanges on evolution of MVs, but, majority of them are based on closely related MV families. To investigate HGT events, we have determined gene distributions and gene phylogenies for the 86 complete MV ORFomes classified in 6 defined and 4 putative families, in context of their homologs from other domains of life. Using an automated phylogenetic workflow MimiLook, 4577 OGs were detected, out of which, 91% of OGs were found to be family specific, whereas, 9% are represented by proteins from 2 or more MV families. 414 OGs were detected as HGT event. We applied a similar procedure to the 7,898 non-orthologous proteins to detect transfer events and identified 259 HGTs from non-orthologous proteins. Instances of HGT were found to be depicting donor specificity, as viruses of vertebrates/invertebrates acquired genes from donors like Euteleostomii, Eutheria, Baculoviridae and proteobacteria; algal viruses and protozoan viruses were found to be acquiring genes from donors like Dictyostellium, Mammeillales, Firmicutes, Clostridiales. In conclusion, clear distinction can be seen in the genome mosaicism of distantly related Megavirale families, where they evolved via genome specificity and family specific gene acquisitions from their respective ecological niche. Our systematic search for HGT events of non-megavirale origin provides the first estimate of the total contribution of HGT in family specific genome mosaicism of distantly related Megavirales.

Dermatófitos são fungos filamentosos que infectam substratos queratinizados como pele, unha e cabelo em busca de nutrientes para se desenvolverem e permanecerem no hospedeiro. Pertencem aos gêneros Epidermophyton, Microsporum ou Trichophyton, os quais, dependendo de seu habitat natural, são classificados em espécies geofílicas, zoofílicas ou antropofílicas. O uso indiscriminado de antifúngicos levou à seleção de cepas resistentes, e o comportamento invasivo desses patógenos em pacientes imunodeprimidos aumentou nos últimos anos, dificultando o tratamento das dermatofitoses. Há, portanto, a necessidade de estudos para um melhor entendimento da biologia dos dermatófitos devido as suas importâncias médica e/ou veterinária e o escasso conhecimento da interação destes patógenos com os hospedeiros. No presente trabalho, analisamos oito espécies de dermatófitos: Arthroderma benhamiae, Microsporum canis, Microsporum gypseum, Trichophyton interdigitale, Trichophyton equinum, Trichophyton rubrum, Trichophyton tonsurans e Trichophyton verrucosum. Análises de genômica comparativa e de expressão de genes potencialmente envolvidos na degradação de queratina foram realizadas. Além disso, efetuamos o sequenciamento genômico em larga escala de uma das linhagens. A estrutura dos genes sub3, sub5 e sub7, que codificam serina endopeptidases com atividade queratinolítica, mep3 e mep4, que codificam proteínas pertencentes ao grupo das metaloendopeptidases, dppV, lap1 e lap2, que codificam exopeptidases, foi analisada por meio de ferramentas computacionais. Essas análises revelaram que os genes que codificam proteases possuem alto grau de conservação em suas estruturas, que é menor quando comparadas apenas suas regiões não codificadoras. As análises permitiram também a identificação em regiões promotoras de consensos específicos a gêneros de dermatófitos. Observamos que o acúmulo de transcritos destes genes, avaliados durante o cultivo em queratina, mimetizando o processo infeccioso, não está correlacionado à similaridade das sequências gênicas entre as espécies. Não encontramos correlação entre o nicho preferencial dos dermatófitos e suas sequências gênicas ou níveis transcricionais. Observamos que, na grande maioria das vezes, genes que codificam endo e exopeptidases, possuem acúmulo de transcritos em períodos iniciais de degradação de queratina. Nossos resultados sugerem que diferenças pontuais na sequencia gênica, diferenças em regiões promotoras ou, até mesmo, expressão variável destes genes que codificam um conjunto proteico com funções sinérgicas e provavelmente compensatórias, contribuam para os diferentes graus de reações inflamatórias no hospedeiro, bem como para a especificidade patógeno-hospedeiro. / Dermatophytes are filamentous fungi that infect keratinized substrates such as skin, nail and hair, searching for nutrients for their development and permanence in the host. They belong to the genera Epidermophyton, Microsporum or Trichophyton, and, depending on their natural habitat, are classified into geophilics, zoophilics or anthropophilics species. The indiscriminate use of antifungals has led to the selection of resistant strains, and the invasive behaviour of these pathogens in immunocompromised patients increased in the last years, hampering the treatment of the dermatophytoses. Therefore, there is a need of studies for a better understanding of the biology of the dermatophytes due to their medical and/or veterinary importance and the scarce knowledge about the interaction of these pathogens with their hosts. In this work, we analyzed eight species of dermatophytes: Arthroderma benhamiae, Microsporum canis, Microsporum gypseum, Trichophyton interdigitale, Trichophyton equinum, Trichophyton rubrum, Trichophyton tonsurans, and Trichophyton verrucosum. Comparative genomics and gene expression analyses of genes potentially involved in keratin degradation were performed. Moreover, we performed a large-scale genome sequencing of one of the strains. The structure of the genes sub3, sub5, and sub7, which encode serine endopeptidases with keratinolytic activity, mep3, and mep4, which encode proteins belonging to the group of the metalloendopeptidases, dppV, lap1, and lap2, encoding exopeptidases, were analyzed by computational tools. These analyses revealed that the genes encoding proteases possesses high degree of conservation in their structures, which are lower when their non-coding regions are compared. The analyses also allowed the identification of consensus in promoter regions, specific of dermatophytes genera. We observed that the transcripts accumulation of these genes, evaluated during the cultivation in keratin, mimicking the infection process, is not correlated to the gene sequence similarities among the species. We have not found any correlation between the preferential niche of dermatophytes and their gene sequences or transcription levels. Most of the times, we observed that genes encoding endo and exopeptidases accumulated transcripts at the beginning of keratin degradation. Our results suggest that specific differences in the genic sequencing, differences in promoter regions, or even variable expression of these genes encoding a set of proteins with synergic and probably compensatory functions, contribute to different levels of inflammatory reactions in the host, as well as to the host-pathogen specificity.

Les picocyanobactéries marines des genres Prochlorococcus et Synechococcus sont les organismes photosynthétiques les plus abondants de la planète et ils contribuent de façon substantielle à la production primaire mondiale. Alors que le genre Prochlorococcus se caractérise par sa forte abondance dans les régions oligotrophes et son génome réduit, le genre Synechococcus se distingue par sa grande diversité génétique et pigmentaire ainsi qu'une aire de distribution plus étendue.Le principal objectif de ce travail a été de mettre en relation la diversité génétique de ces organismes avec leur niche écologique par des approches de génomique comparative et de métagénomique. Tout d'abord, le développement d'une méthode de scaffolding (WiseScaffolder) a permis de clore 32 nouveaux génomes de Synechococcus, lesquels ont été intégrés au système d'information Cyanorak, dédié à l'annotation de gènes orthologues. Ces nouveaux génomes, complétant les 65 génomes disponibles pour ces deux genres, ont fait l'objet d'analyses comparatives afin de mieux comprendre la diversité et l'évolution de ce phylum et de définir les gènes spécifiques de différents groupes phylogénétiques, potentiellement liés à leur adaptation à des niches écologiques distinctes.Ces génomes ont ensuite été utilisés comme référence, en conjonction avec le gène marqueur petB, pour analyser les données de métagénomique issues de l'expédition TARA-Océans. Ces analyses ont notamment mis en lumière la diversité génétique, la distribution et l'importance écologique de certains clades phylogénétiques. Ce travail soulève de nouvelles hypothèses quant au rôle des picocyanobactéries dans le fonctionnement global des océans. / Marine picocyanobacteria Prochlorococcus and Synechococcus genera are the most abundant photosynthetic organisms and contribute substantially to global primary production. While the genus Prochlorococcus is characterized by its high abundance in oligotrophic regions and its reduced genome, Synechococcus is characterized by a larger genetic and pigment diversity and a wider area of distribution.The main objective of this PhD thesis was to link the genetic diversity of these organisms to the environmental conditions of their ecological niche by comparative genomics and metagenomics approaches. Firstly, the development of a scaffolding method (WiseScaffolder) has allowed us to close 32 new genomes of Synechococcus which were integrated into the Cyanorak information system dedicated to the annotation of orthologous genes. These new genomes, supplementing the 65 genomes previously available for these two genera, allowed us to perform comparative analyses which led to a better understanding of the diversity and evolution of this phylum and to the definition of genes sets specific to different phylogenetic groups and thus potentially related to their adaptation to different ecological niches.These genomes were then used as reference, in conjunction with the marker gene petB gene, to analyze metagenomic data produced in the frame of the Tara-Oceans Expedition. In particular, these analyzes highlighted the genetic diversity, distribution and ecological importance of some phylogenetic clades. This work raises new hypotheses about the role of picocyanobacteria in the overall functioning of the oceans.

Signal transduction pathways allow organisms to sense and respond appropriately to a complex bouquet of environmental cues. The molecular determinants of specificity are constrained by the demands of signaling fidelity, yet flexible enough to allow pathway remodeling to meet novel environmental challenges. A detailed picture of how these forces shape bacterial two-component signaling systems has emerged over the last decade. However, the tension between constraint and flexibility in more complex architectures has not been well-studied. In this thesis, I combine comparative genomics and in vitro phosphotransfer experiments to investigate pathway remodeling using the Firmicutes sporulation initiation (Spo0) pathway as a model. The present-day Spo0 pathways in Bacilli and Clostridia share common ancestry, but possess different architectures. In Clostridia, a sensor kinase phosphorylates Spo0A, the master regulator of the sporulation, directly. In Bacilli, Spo0 is phosphorylated/activated indirectly via a four-protein phosphorelay. The presence in sister lineages of signaling pathways that activate the same response regulator and control analogous phenotypes, yet possess with different architectures, suggests a common ancestral pathway that evolved through interaction remodeling. The prevailing theory is that the ancestral pathway was a simpler, direct phosphorylation architecture; the more complex phosphorelay emerged within the Bacillar lineage. In contrast to this prevailing view, my analysis of 84 representative genomes supports a novel hypothesis for the evolution of Spo0 architectures, wherein the two protein, direct phosphorylation architecture is a derived state, which arose from an ancestral Spo0 phosphorelay. The combination of my bioinformatic analysis and the first experimental characterization of a Clostridial phosphorelay provide evidence for the presence of functional phosphorelays in both classes Bacilli and Clostridia. Further, a cross-species complementation assay between phosphorelays from each class suggests that interaction specificity has been conserved since the divergence of this phylum, 2.7 BYA. My results reveal a patchy phylogenetic distribution of both Spo0 pathway architectures, consistent with repeated remodeling events, in which a phosphorelay was replaced with a two protein, direct phosphorylation pathway. This remodeling likely occurred via acquisition of a sensor kinase with direct specificity for Spo0A. Further, my analysis suggests that the unusual architectures of the Spo0 pathway and its striking tendency to gain and lose interactions may be due to the juxtaposition of three key properties: the maintenance of interaction specificity through molecular recognition; the ecological role of endosporulation; and the degeneracy of interaction space that permits the ongoing recruitment of kinases to recognize novel environmental signals.

>Magister Scientiae - MSc / Next generation sequencing (NGS) technology platforms have accelerated ability to produce completed genome assemblies. Recently, collaborators at Tygerberg Medical School outsourced the sequencing of Oryx bacillus, a member of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTC). A total of 31,271,059 short reads were generated and required filtering, assembly and annotation using bioinformatics algorithms. In this project, an NGS assembly pipeline was implemented, tailored specifically for SOLiD sequence data. The raw reads were aligned to seven fully sequenced and annotated MTC members, namely, Mycobacterium tuberculosis H37Rv, H37Ra, CDC1551, F11, KZN 1435, Mycobacterium bovis AF2122/97 and Mycobacterium bovis BCG str. Pasteur 1173P2 using NovoalignCS. Depth and breadth of sequence coverage across each base of the reference genome was calculated using BEDTools, and structural variation. Structural variation at the nucleotide level including deletions, insertions and single nucleotidepolymorphisms (SNPs) were called using three tools, GATK, SAMtools and Nesoni. These variations were further filtered using in-house PERL scripts. Putative functional roles for the alterations at the DNA level were extrapolated from the overlap with essential genes present in annotated MTC members. Approximately 20,730,631 short reads (59.78%) out of a total of 31,271,059 reads aligned to the seven reference genomes. The per base sequence coverage calculations revealed an average of 1,243 unaligned regions. These unaligned regions overlapped with mycobacterial regions of difference (RD) and genetic phage elements acquired by the MTC through horizontal gene transfer and are genes prevalent in the clinical isolates of M. tuberculosis. A total of 2,680 genetic variations were identified and categorised into 845 synonymous and 1,724 non-synonymous SNPs together with 44 insertions and 67 deletions. Some of the variant alleles overlapped known genes to be involved in TB drug resistance. While the biological significance of our findings remain to be elucidated, it nonetheless deserves further attention, because SNPs have the potential to impact on strain phenotype by gene disruption. Therefore, any hypotheses generated from these large-scale analyses will be tested by our collaborators at Tygerberg medical school.

Le travail décrit dans cette thèse a commencé avec la découverte d’effets anti-inflammatoires chez certaines souches de L. delbrueckii. Il avait été montré que l’effet anti-inflammatoire est souche-dépendant, et implique l’action de protéines exposées à la surface de la bactérie. Dans le but d’identifier l’effecteur bactérien à l’origine de l’effet immuno-modulateur, 8 souches de L. delbrueckii ont été sélectionnées. Deux de ces souches sont à fort effet anti-inflammatoires, et les 6 restantes sont à effet faible ou intermédiaire. Pour l’identification des protéines potentiellement responsables pour l’effet anti-inflammatoire, des études de génomique et transcriptomique comparatives des 8 souches de L.delbrueckii ont été entreprises, ainsi qu’une étude comparative du protéome de surface bactérienne.La première partie de cette thèse décrit les résultats de finition du génome d’une des deux souches hautement anti-inflammatoires. Cette étape a révélé que la partie manquante de la séquence génomique était principalement composée de séquences répétées de type séquences d’insertions (IS), dont le nombre s’avère particulièrement élevé.La deuxième partie de la thèse décrit une étape de valorisation des données génomiques à travers une étude comparative entre souches de la ssp. lactis et souches de la ssp. bulgaricus. Cette étude révèle que les deux ssp. de L. delbrueckii évoluent en adaptation au milieu lait. Toutefois, la ssp. bulgaricus semble avoir atteint un stade d’adaptation plus avancé que celui de la ssp. lactis. L’adaptation des deux ssp. à leur environnement se fait principalement par un phénomène de perte spontanée de gènes devenus superflus.Une étude plus avancée de la structure génomique des deux ssp. révèle deux nouveaux aspects des différences de structure génomique. Tout d’abord, au sein du core génome des deux sous-espèces, les évènements d’échange génétique et recombinaison ont contribué plus à la diversité au sein de la ssp. lactis qu’à la diversité chez la ssp. bulgaricus. Ensuite, une structure inversée répétée de grande taille, rarement observée dans les génomes bactériens, s’avère caractéristique de la ssp. bulgaricus. La troisième partie de thèse décrit les trois approches comparatives menées dans le but d’identifier les protéines bactériennes à l’origine de l’effet anti-inflammatoire. Au bout de ces études, nous avons sélectionné 56 gènes candidats, dont 41 ont été clonés dans un système d’expression hétérologue. Pour l’instant, 17 clones d’expression ont été testés in vitro pour leur potentiel immuno-modulateur. Les résultats préliminaires ont permis l’identification d’une protéine à effet anti-inflammatoire. / The work described in this thesis began with the discovery of anti -inflammatory effects in certain strains of L. delbrueckii. The anti- inflammatory effect had been shown to be strain - dependent, and implicate the action of bacterial surface exposed proteins.In order to identify the bacterial effector responsible for the immunomodulatory effect, eight strains of L. delbrueckii were selected. Two of these strains have a strong anti -inflammatory effect, whereas the remaining strains have a weak to intermediary effect. To identify proteins that may be responsible for the anti- inflammatory effect, comparative genomic and transcriptomic studies of the 8 L.delbrueckii strains were conducted, as well as a comparative study of the bacterial surface proteome.The first part of this thesis describes the genome finishing of one of the highly anti- inflammatory strains. This step revealed that the missing part of the genome sequence was mainly composed of repeated sequences such as insertions sequences (IS), that were present in a particularly high number.The second part of the thesis describes the valorisation of genomic data through a comparative study between ssp. lactis strains and ssp. bulgaricus strains. This study reveals that both L. delbrueckii ssp. are evolving in adaptation to the milk environment. However, the ssp. bulgaricus appears to have reached a more advanced stage of adaptation than the ssp. lactis. The adaptation of both ssp. to their environment is primarily a phenomenon of spontaneous loss of genes that have become superfluous. A more detailed study of the genome structure of the two ssp. reveals two important differences. Firstly, within the L. delbrueckii core genome, genetic exchange and recombination contributed much more to the ssp. lactis diversity than to the ssp. bulgaricus diversity. Furthermore, a large inverted repeat structure, rarely observed in bacterial genomes, appears to be characteristic of the ssp. bulgaricus.The third part of the thesis describes the three comparative approaches used to identify bacterial proteins responsible for the anti- inflammatory effect.We selected 56 candidate genes, of which 41 were cloned in a heterologous expression system. So far, 17 expression clones were tested in vitro for their immunomodulatory potential. The preliminary results allowed the identification of one protein with anti-inflammatory effects.

Le genre Rickettsia est composé de bactéries Gram-négatives, intracellulaires obligatoires qui causent un éventail de maladies humaines à travers le monde. Des nouvelles techniques ont permis de progresser dans l'identification et la classification des Rickettsia, y compris l'introduction de méthodes moléculaires comme la comparaison de séquences de gènes (ARNr 16S, ompA, ompB, gltA, sca4 …) et la création du statut de sous-espèce. La génomique et les techniques de séquençage de nouvelle génération ont permis d’accéder à une nouvelle façon d’en apprendre davantage sur la pathogenèse et l'évolution de Rickettsia. La première partie de cette thèse est une revue sur les avantages et les limites de la génomique en taxonomie des procaryotes, tandis que la seconde partie est constituée des analyses génomiques de cinq sous-espèces de Rickettsia et une nouvelle espèce de Rickettsia. En utilisant des méthodes de séquençage à haut débit, nous avons obtenu les génomes de R. sibirica sibirica, R. sibirica mongolitimonae, R. conorii indica, R. conorii caspia, R. conorii israelensis et R. gravesii. Ce travail constitue la base d’autres études qui permettront de mieux comprendre les mécanismes physiopathologiques, l’évolution, et la taxonomie des rickettsies. / The Rickettsia genus is composed of Gram-negative, obligate intracellular bacteria that cause a range of human diseases around the world. New techniques have led to progress in the identification and classification of Rickettsia, including the introduction of molecular methods like sequence comparison (16S rRNA, ompA, ompB, gltA, sca4 …) and the creation of the subspecies status. Genomics and next-generation sequencing have opened a new way to learn more about the pathogenesis and evolution of Rickettsia. The first part of this thesis is a review on the advantages and limitations of genomics in prokaryotic taxonomy, while the second part consists of the genomic analyses of five Rickettsia subspecies and a new Rickettsia species. Using high-throughput sequencing methods, we obtained the draft genomes of R. sibirica sibirica, R. sibirica mongolitimonae, R. conorii indica, R. conorii caspia, R. conorii israelensis, and R. gravesii. This work can be a basis of further studies to increase the understanding on the disease-causing mechanisms, evolutionary relationships, and taxonomy of rickettsiae.

Les entérobactéries du genre Xenorhabdus sont pathogènes de larves d'insectes et symbiotiques de nématodes du genre Steinernema. En lutte biologique, les couples Steinernema-Xenorhabdus sont utilisés contre un large spectre d'insectes ravageurs de culture. Les deux partenaires du couple modèle Steinernema carpocapsae-Xenorhabdus nematophila peuvent être expérimentalement dissociés tout en restant pathogènes pour les insectes. En revanche, certaines souches de Xenorhabdus sont non-virulentes lorsqu'elles sont injectées directement dans une larve d'insecte. L'objectif de cette thèse est de caractériser deux souches non-virulentes de Xenorhabdus, X. poinarii G6 (Xp G6) et X. bovienii CS03 (Xb CS03). Les souches appartenant à l'espèce non-virulente X. poinarii possèdent des génomes de petite taille. Nous avons mis en évidence un phénomène de réduction génomique due à la délétion de larges régions génomiques chez la souche Xp G6. Cette évolution pourrait avoir eu lieu suite à un transfert des fonctions bactériennes de virulence à son nématode hôte et/ou à sa spécialisation envers certains coléoptères. Au sein de l'espèce X. bovienii, Xb CS03 est non-virulente par injection dans les lépidoptères Spodoptera littoralis et Galleria mellonella. Par rapport à d'autres couples némato-bactériens Steinernema sp.-X. bovienii, le couple formé par Xb CS03 et son nématode symbiotique S. weiseri 583 présente également une virulence atténuée sur ces lépidoptères. Le génome de Xb CS03 est de très grande taille et contient un grand nombre de gènes dégradés (pseudogènes). Une comparaison génomique entre Xb CS03 et une souche virulente appartenant à la même espèce, X. bovienii SS-2004 (Xb SS-2004), montre que Xb CS03 est plus riche que Xb SS-2004 en gènes codant des chaînes d'assemblage enzymatiques NRPS/PKS (non-ribosomal peptide synthase/polyketide synthethase) produisant des métabolites antimicrobiens potentiels. A l'inverse, Xb SS-2004 contient davantage de gènes codant des facteurs de virulence de type hémolysine, adhésine ou systèmes de sécrétion. Ceci suggère deux scénarios évolutifs différents, privilégiant une forte virulence pour Xb SS-2004 et l'élimination des compétiteurs au sein du cadavre de l'insecte pour Xb CS03. Enfin, une recherche de facteurs de virulence potentiels a été effectuée par une approche de génomique comparative entre les souches non-virulentes Xp G6 et Xb CS03, d'une part et trois souches de Xenorhabdus virulentes, d'autre part. L'analyse fonctionnelle de gènes candidats a été entamée. En conclusion, la caractérisation de nouveaux modèles bactériens dans le genre Xenorhabdus ouvre le champ à l'identification de nouvelles stratégies de virulence et de nouveaux facteurs de virulence chez les bactéries entomopathogènes. / Xenorhabdus are enterobacteria pathogenic of insect larvae and symbiotic of nematodes from the Steinernema genus. The Steinernema-Xenorhabdus associations are used against a wide range of insect pests. The two partners of the model Steinernema carpocapsae-Xenorhabdus nematophila association can be experimentally dissociated. Each partner is pathogenic for insect larvae. Contrarily, some other Xenorhabdus strains are non-virulent when injected directly into insect larvae. In this thesis, we characterized two non-virulent Xenorhabdus strains, X. poinarii G6 (Xp G6) and X. bovienii CS03 (Xb CS03). Strains from the X. poinarii species had small-sized genomes. We showed that the Xp G6 strain had undergone a genome reduction due to the deletion of large genomic regions. Transfer of virulence functions from the bacteria to the nematode and/or the specialization of the association towards coleopteran insects are likely the cause of this evolution. Within the X. bovienii species, Xb CS03 was non-virulent strain when injected into the Spodoptera littoralis and Galleria mellonella lepidopteran insects. When compared to other Steinernema-X. bovienii pairs, the association between Xb CS03 and its symbiotic nematode S. weiseri 583 had also a lower virulence on those insects. Xb CS03 had a large-sized genome and harbored numerous degraded genes (pseudogenes). Genome comparison between Xb CS03 and a virulent strain from the same species, X. bovienii SS-2004 (Xb SS-2004), showed that Xb CS03 contained more loci encoding NRPS/PKS enzymes (non-ribosomal peptide synthase/polyketide synthethase), producing potential antimicrobial metabolites, than Xb SS-2004. On the other hand, Xb SS-2004 contained more genes encoding virulence factors such as hemolysins, adhesins or secretion systems. This suggests that the two strains followed different evolutionary scenarios, favoring strong virulence in Xb SS-2204 and elimination of competitors for Xb CS03.Finally, we searched for potential virulence factors by comparing the genomes of the non-virulent strains Xp G6 and Xb CS03 with three virulent strains. Functional analyses of the candidates are in progress. In conclusion, characterizing new bacterial models in the Xenorhabdus genus paves the way for the identification of new virulence strategies and new virulence genes in entomopathogenic bacteria.

Nodularia spumigena é uma espécie cianobacteriana conhecida como produtora da hepatotoxina nodularina. Essa cianotoxina é uma potente e irreversível inibidora de proteínas fosfatases da família serina/treonina (PP1 e PP2A) de células eucarióticas e é uma promotora tumoral e suspeita carcinogéna. Além da nodularina, a N. spumigena também é produtora de outros peptídeos não ribossômicos, tais como espumiginas, aeruginosinas e anabaenopeptinas. O primeiro relato de N. spumigena formadora de florações no Brasil ocorreu em 2011 em tanques de produção de camarões no Rio Grande, RS, e estimulou o interesse na obtenção de informações sobre o seu genoma e potencial biossíntético. Dessa forma, a objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar os aspectos genômicos e funcionais da linhagem Nodularia spumigena CENA596 isolada de um tanque de produção de camarões de Rio Grande. Para isso, uma cultura da linhagem N. spumigena CENA596 foi submetida a um tratamento com hipoclorito de sódio (2%) para eliminação de contaminantes e o DNA extraído das células tratadas foi sequenciado na plataforma MiSeq e analisado com ferramentas genômicas. O sequenciamento e a montagem do seu genoma originaram 291 sequências contíguas com percentual GC de 41,19 e tamanho total de 5.189.679 pb. A análise filogenética baseada na sequência do gene que codifica o 16S rRNA agrupou a linhagem CENA596 com outras de N. spumigena da Austrália e América do Norte. Na árvore filogenômica construída com as sequências concatenadas de 31 proteínas, a linhagem brasileira CENA596 agrupou-se com valor de reamostragem de 100% com a N. spumigena CCY9414 originária do mar Báltico. As análises comparativas entre os genomas dessas duas linhagens indicaram um grande número de genes compartilhados, os quais estão relacionados principalmente ao metabolismo primário das células. Por outro lado, foram encontrados genes específicos para cada uma delas que estão envolvidos em respostas celulares a estresses oxidativos, patógenos e antibióticos. A mineração do genoma da N. spumigena CENA596 revelou 13 agrupamentos gênicos hipoteticamente relacionados à síntese de metabólitos secundários, a maioria dos quais mostrou similaridade significativa com agrupamentos conhecidos. As análises químicas confirmaram a produção de duas variantes de nodularina, espumigina, namalida, aeruginosina e aminoácidos tipo micosporina, e uma variante de geosmina. A linhagem brasileira N. spumigena CENA596 mostrou-se capaz de produzir uma variedade significante de moléculas bioativas e seu genoma revelou-se ser consideravelmente conservado em relação ao genoma da linhagem CCY9414, a qual é conhecida por causar grandes florações tóxicas no Mar Báltico / Nodularia spumigena is a cyanobacterial species known as a producer of the hepatotoxin nodularin. This cyanotoxin is a potent and irreversible inhibitor of eukaryotic cell serine/threonine protein phosphatases (PP1 and PP2A) and is a tumor promoter and suspected carcinogen. In addition to nodularin, N. spumigena is also produces other non-ribosomal peptides, such as spumigins, aeruginosines and anabaenopeptins. The first report of bloom-forming N. spumigena in Brazil occurred in 2011 in shrimp production ponds, Rio Grande, RS, and stimulated interest in obtaining information on its genome and biosynthetic potential. Thus, the objective of this study was to evaluate the genomic and functional aspects of the strain N. spumigena CENA596 isolated from a shrimp production pond of the Rio Grande. For this, a culture of the strain N. spumigena CENA596 was submitted to a treatment with sodium hypochlorite (2%) to eliminate contaminants and the DNA extracted from treated cells was sequenced in a platform MiSeq and analyzed with genomic tools. Genome sequencing and assembly resulted in 291 contiguous sequences with GC percentage of 41.19 and total size of 5,187,679 bp. Phylogenetic analysis based on the gene sequence encoding the 16S rRNA grouped the strain CENA596 with other N. spumigena from Australia and North America. In the phylogenomic tree constructed with the concatenated sequences of 31 proteins, the Brazilian strain CENA596 grouped with a bootstrap value of 100% with the N. spumigena CCY9414 originating from the Baltic sea. Comparative analyses between the genomes of these two strains indicated a large number of shared genes, which are mainly related to the primary metabolism of the cells. Otherwise, genes specific for each of the two strains were identified as involved in cellular responses to oxidative stress, pathogens and antibiotics. Genome mining revealed 13 gene clusters hypothetically related to the synthesis of secondary metabolites, most of which showed significant similarity to known clusters. Chemical analyses confirmed the production of two variants of nodularin, spumigin, namalide, aeruginosin and mycosporine-like amino acid, and one variant of geosmin. The Brazilian strain N. spumigena CENA596 was able to produce a significant variety of bioactive molecules and its genome revealed to be considerably conserved in relation to the genome of the strain CCY9414, which is known to cause large toxic blooms in the Baltic Sea