In the last three decades, complexity theory has gained a lot of importance in several scientific disciplines like astronomy, geology, chemistry etc. It has slowly extended its usage in the field of project management. While trying to understand the managerial demands of modern day projects and the different situations faced in projects, the term ‘complexity’ is progressively becoming a benchmark term. In the recent past some of the challenging projects that have been completed are the Heathrow Terminal 5 and the construction of venues for the Beijing Olympics. But can we call these projects complex?It is probably too simplistic to classify projects as complex or non-complex. What is particularly important is to identify the source of the complexity, the level and also the implications of the complexity. Several academicians have studied the different dimensions and established different classifications of complexity. These are put together into models of complexity.But is this classification well-grounded in reality? This is what we aim to explore through this research. The specific questions that we wish to explore by conducting this research are: How does the understanding of project complexity in actuality conform to the theoretical complexity models? In an effort to answer the primary question, our study will also throw some light on factors of complexity across different sectors. We hope that this distinction will pave way for further research within these sectors. This now brings us to our sub-question:- How do the factors that contribute to complexity compare across different sectors?At the outset of this research, the literature on complexity was reviewed. An attempt was made to understand what complexity means with a focus on the field of project management.It was observed that there is a new wave of thinking in this field and a camp which believes that regular project management tools and techniques cannot be used for complex projects. This has drawn several academicians to generate models of complexity based on various factors. In this research we have focused on some important models like that of Turner and Cochrane, Ralph Stacey, Terry Williams, Kahane and Remington and Pollack. We have tried to see if any of these models fit in with how practitioners understand complexity.To find out how practitioners comprehend complexity, we followed a grounded theory approach and also used quantitative methods to supplement the results in accordance in a mixed methodology. Semi-structured interviews were carried out with nine project managers from different sectors and different  geographical locations. The interviews were analyzed and the data was broken down to different categories referred to as open coding where labelling was done. This was followed by Axial coding where we describe the properties and build relations between these categories. The final stage is selective coding where the emerged theory is integrated and refined.Quantitative data was collected through a short questionnaire which listed out some factors which could cause or lead to complexity in projects. A total of 29 responses were obtained for the questionnaires. By analyzing this data we were able to determine the factors that project managers thought caused complexity in projects. A new dimension was also added by analyzing it sector-wise. Since we collected data from two different sources, via interviews and through questionnaires, it gave us the opportunity to triangulate the findings. Wesincerely hope that this piece of work will pave way for future research on similar areas like models of complexity and perception of complexity in project management

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Esta monografia apresenta e descreve o trabalho de pesquisa realizado com vistas a obter conclusões e propor recomendações que pudessem ser úteis a profissionais que atuam no campo da Tecnologia da Informação (TI) e a pesquisadores acadêmicos, no que diz respeito: (a) à aplicação do enfoque das opções reais a projetos complexos de infraestrutura de TI, de interesse para os primeiros citados, e (b) a novos rumos para a pesquisa sobre a aplicação deste enfoque, de interesse para os últimos. Para atender aos objetivos definidos, o estudo foi realizado em seis etapas: (1) revisão da literatura relativa aos temas envolvidos, (2) elaboração das definições operacionais e definição do modelo de pesquisa e das proposições, (3) escolha da metodologia e do método de pesquisa, (4) elaboração e apresentação dos casos estudados, (5) análise dos casos, verificação das proposições e elaboração de recomendações e (6) elaboração das conclusões finais. A revisão da literatura compreendeu um levantamento bibliográfico amplo sobre infraestrutura de TI, projetos complexos de infraestrutura de TI, riscos e gestão de riscos, técnicas para justificação de projetos, opções reais e outros temas complementares. A elaboração das definições operacionais tomou como base o resultado do levantamento bibliográfico e os objetivos da pesquisa. A definição do modelo de pesquisa e o estabelecimento das proposições consideraram os objetivos da pesquisa e os gaps existentes na literatura acadêmica. A escolha da metodologia e do método de pesquisa se deu por meio de um processo de seleção que culminou com a opção pelo estudo de caso. Uma vez feita a opção pelo estudo de caso como método de pesquisa, foram selecionados três casos de projetos complexos de infraestrutura de TI, os quais foram explorados e analisados sob a ótica dos temas centrais da pesquisa (com o suporte das definições operacionais assumidas) e com foco na questão e nos objetivos da pesquisa. A análise dos casos estudados contemplou a verificação das seis proposições estabelecidas, que se mostraram integralmente suportadas pelas conclusões obtidas. Por fim, a elaboração das recomendações e considerações finais complementou o estudo. Como contribuição maior, este estudo oferece uma visão realista, simples e objetiva acerca do papel que o enfoque das opções reais pode exercer no contexto dos projetos complexos de infraestrutura de TI e coloca à disposição dos pesquisadores um elenco de novas perspectivas para estudo do tema na Academia e ao alcance dos profissionais de TI um novo formato que tende a incentivar a aplicação deste enfoque aos seus projetos. / This report presents and depicts the research carried out in order to find out recommendations that may possibly assist Information Technology (IT) professionals and academic researchers with respect to: (a) the effective use of real options thinking in complex IT infrastructure projects, useful for the formers, and (b) new insights related to academic research focused on how to apply real options thinking, useful for the latter. In order to satisfy the proposed objectives, the research comprised six steps: (1) review the academic literature on the issues involved, (2) develop operational definitions and define the research model and propositions, (3) choose the methodology and the research method, (4) organize and describe the case studies, (5) analyze the cases, verify proposals and make recommendations, and (6) prepare final conclusions. The literature review comprised an extensive bibliography research on IT infrastructure, complex IT infrastructure projects, risks and risk management, project justification techniques, real options and other complementary themes. The results of the literature review and the research objectives were took into account to prepare the operational definitions. To build the research model and set up the propositions, the research objectives were took into account again, as also the existing gaps in the academic literature. The choice of both the methodology and the research method was made through a process that culminated in the choice of the case study method. Once the choice of case study as a research method were made, three cases involving complex IT infrastructure projects were selected and thereafter explored and analyzed under the perspective of the central themes of the research (with support of the assumed operational definitions) and with focus on both the research question and the research objectives. The analysis of the cases comprised the verification of the six propositions stated, which showed themselves to be fully supported by the conclusions drawn. At last, the recommendations and closing remarks were written down and added to the study. As a major contribution, this study provides a realistic, simple, and objective vision about the role that real options thinking can play within the context of complex IT infrastructure projects and also makes available to researchers a cast of new perspectives for study of this subject in Academy and to IT professionals a new schema that tends to encourage them in order to apply this approach in their projects.

Esta monografia apresenta e descreve o trabalho de pesquisa realizado com vistas a obter conclusões e propor recomendações que pudessem ser úteis a profissionais que atuam no campo da Tecnologia da Informação (TI) e a pesquisadores acadêmicos, no que diz respeito: (a) à aplicação do enfoque das opções reais a projetos complexos de infraestrutura de TI, de interesse para os primeiros citados, e (b) a novos rumos para a pesquisa sobre a aplicação deste enfoque, de interesse para os últimos. Para atender aos objetivos definidos, o estudo foi realizado em seis etapas: (1) revisão da literatura relativa aos temas envolvidos, (2) elaboração das definições operacionais e definição do modelo de pesquisa e das proposições, (3) escolha da metodologia e do método de pesquisa, (4) elaboração e apresentação dos casos estudados, (5) análise dos casos, verificação das proposições e elaboração de recomendações e (6) elaboração das conclusões finais. A revisão da literatura compreendeu um levantamento bibliográfico amplo sobre infraestrutura de TI, projetos complexos de infraestrutura de TI, riscos e gestão de riscos, técnicas para justificação de projetos, opções reais e outros temas complementares. A elaboração das definições operacionais tomou como base o resultado do levantamento bibliográfico e os objetivos da pesquisa. A definição do modelo de pesquisa e o estabelecimento das proposições consideraram os objetivos da pesquisa e os gaps existentes na literatura acadêmica. A escolha da metodologia e do método de pesquisa se deu por meio de um processo de seleção que culminou com a opção pelo estudo de caso. Uma vez feita a opção pelo estudo de caso como método de pesquisa, foram selecionados três casos de projetos complexos de infraestrutura de TI, os quais foram explorados e analisados sob a ótica dos temas centrais da pesquisa (com o suporte das definições operacionais assumidas) e com foco na questão e nos objetivos da pesquisa. A análise dos casos estudados contemplou a verificação das seis proposições estabelecidas, que se mostraram integralmente suportadas pelas conclusões obtidas. Por fim, a elaboração das recomendações e considerações finais complementou o estudo. Como contribuição maior, este estudo oferece uma visão realista, simples e objetiva acerca do papel que o enfoque das opções reais pode exercer no contexto dos projetos complexos de infraestrutura de TI e coloca à disposição dos pesquisadores um elenco de novas perspectivas para estudo do tema na Academia e ao alcance dos profissionais de TI um novo formato que tende a incentivar a aplicação deste enfoque aos seus projetos. / This report presents and depicts the research carried out in order to find out recommendations that may possibly assist Information Technology (IT) professionals and academic researchers with respect to: (a) the effective use of real options thinking in complex IT infrastructure projects, useful for the formers, and (b) new insights related to academic research focused on how to apply real options thinking, useful for the latter. In order to satisfy the proposed objectives, the research comprised six steps: (1) review the academic literature on the issues involved, (2) develop operational definitions and define the research model and propositions, (3) choose the methodology and the research method, (4) organize and describe the case studies, (5) analyze the cases, verify proposals and make recommendations, and (6) prepare final conclusions. The literature review comprised an extensive bibliography research on IT infrastructure, complex IT infrastructure projects, risks and risk management, project justification techniques, real options and other complementary themes. The results of the literature review and the research objectives were took into account to prepare the operational definitions. To build the research model and set up the propositions, the research objectives were took into account again, as also the existing gaps in the academic literature. The choice of both the methodology and the research method was made through a process that culminated in the choice of the case study method. Once the choice of case study as a research method were made, three cases involving complex IT infrastructure projects were selected and thereafter explored and analyzed under the perspective of the central themes of the research (with support of the assumed operational definitions) and with focus on both the research question and the research objectives. The analysis of the cases comprised the verification of the six propositions stated, which showed themselves to be fully supported by the conclusions drawn. At last, the recommendations and closing remarks were written down and added to the study. As a major contribution, this study provides a realistic, simple, and objective vision about the role that real options thinking can play within the context of complex IT infrastructure projects and also makes available to researchers a cast of new perspectives for study of this subject in Academy and to IT professionals a new schema that tends to encourage them in order to apply this approach in their projects.

This study aims to investigate and analyse organisational learning in project-based organisations (PBOs) that work with complex projects. The focus is to contribute to the knowledge about how PBOs can enhance the management of experiences derived from complex projects to promote organisational learning. This is investigated by studying how experience is captured and transferred within a project, across different projects, from project to the line organization and reintegrated into new projects. Additionally, the study examines challenges related to knowledge transfer and evaluates human and structural capital. To fulfil this, a case study is conducted on a consulting PBO that works with complex infrastructure projects. Qualitative interviews were conducted with individuals in various roles within the organisation. Furthermore, participant observations were conducted on meetings where project experience was discussed, both during ongoing projects and at project completion. The findings show that employees have a lot of knowledge and experience after working in complex projects. Experiences are collected and shared with other colleagues in various forums in complex projects. The findings suggest that PBOs can enhance their management of experiences from complex projects by the following strategies: (1) creating time for reflection to collect, discuss and evaluate experiences on an ongoing basis, (2) promoting knowledge exchange among colleagues to transfer tacit knowledge, (3) making documentation searchable and accessible beyond the project organization and (4) conducting regular and in-depth analysis to uncover patterns that can improve the structural capital. In future studies, it would be interesting to explore how artificial intelligence and machine learning could aid in conducting in-depth analysis of experiential data from complex projects. This to facilitate the identification of patterns and relationships within the data, providing valuable insight for enhancing organisational learning in PBOs.

Combat aircraft programs between a manufacturer and government are critical for both parties, asit involves significant costs, lengthy development times, and high risks. If successful, suchprograms can result in improved defense capabilities for the government and financial gains forthe manufacturer. However, due to the high technical uncertainty, value creation in the programscan be challenging. The purpose of this study was thus to examine how the total value creation,consisting of value for both parties, can be increased by choosing suitable contract models for theprogram, as contract model is of utmost importance due to its direct implication on value creationfor both actors in the programs. The purpose was answered by conducting a literature and casestudy, where the latter was made on the context of combat aircraft programs between Saab ABAeronautics and The Swedish Defense Materiel Administration (FMV). From the literature study, relevant theory regarding value creation, co-creation of value, andcontract models were identified and compiled. Different drivers of value were researched, basedon potential benefits and sacrifices for the actors in the combat aircraft programs, and categorizedinto technical and commercial factors. Extensive dialogues, risk sharing, and structures fordecision making, were identified as important mechanisms of co-creation of value. Finally,different contract models, categorized into fixed-price contracts, incentive contracts, and cost-pluscontracts, and their influence on the drivers of value and co-creation of value was discussed. Fromthe literature study, it was clear that there was no consensus of what contract model is most suitablefor a combat aircraft program, even though there were similarities in the literature of some authors. The case study consisted of eight interviews with representatives of both Saab AB Aeronauticsand FMV. Based on the answers of the interviews, a deeper understanding of what drives valueand co-creation of value in the programs was established, as well as how the contract models affectthese factors. When analyzing the empirics of the case study with the literature study, it was clearthat different phases of the program were of utmost interest, since what drives value differs in eachphase. Thus, as different contract models are suitable for different reasons, it was apparent thatone contract model is not sufficient for the whole program. Instead, the recommendation of thisstudy is that different contract models during different phases are suitable to increase the totalvalue creation in a combat aircraft program. For the first two phases of the program, initial studies and conceptualization, a cost-plus contractis recommended, as it could be damaging for technical value creation with incentives for costsavings. For the third phase, development and industrialization, an incentive contract isrecommended, since it enables experimentation and creation of technical value, while stilldecreasing the risk of excess spending and cost for the actors. For the final phase, production, afixed-price contract is recommended, as it allows for commercial value creation for both actors,without risk damaging the technical value creation. To conclude, this study develops the previousliterature with new findings on the connection of the theoretical areas. Further, it provides practicalrecommendations for manufacturers and governments involved in combat aircraft programs.

Residential construction projects are complex. New trends such as globalization,urbanization, and sustainability put even more pressure on the capital intense andalready low marginal industry. In Sweden, the market is competitive. There are many large residential contractors active today. To stay competitive and gain market share, the contractors must deliver attractive apartments. However, what future residents value is not easily articulated or understood. The average home buyer makes home purchasing decisions based on individual and situational aspects, dependent on the life-cycle stage and mainly - not always according to rational choice theory. This analysis has through a literature review and interviews with stakeholders at a large Swedish contractor, gathered information on what is considered residential value, and if barriers to realizing them exist. Barriers were found and were namely a lack of information communication infrastructure making the lengthy and stakeholder-intensive projects with high staff turnover challenging to manage. Other barriers were classic split incentive dilemmas due to decentralization and goal misalignment. Other, ad-hoc decision-making, project members working in silos, and difficulties to articulate residential value. / Bostadsrättsprojekt är komplexa. Nya trender som globalisering, urbanisering och hållbarhet sätter press på den kapitalintensiva och låg marginal industrin. I Sverige är marknaden konkurrensutsatt. Det finns många stora entreprenörer verksamma idag. För att förbli konkurrenskraftig och ta marknadsandelar måste entreprenörerna leverera attraktiva bostadsrätter. Men vad framtida bostadsrättsinnehavare värdesätter är inte lätt att formulera eller förstå. Den genomsnittlige bostadsköparen fattar köpbeslut utifrån individuella och situationsbaserade aspekter, beroende på livscykelstadium och huvudsakligen - inte alltid enligt rationell beslutsteori. Denna analys har genom en litteraturstudie och intervjuer med intressenter hos en stor svensk entreprenör samlat in information om vad som anses vara kundvärde, och hinder för att uppnå dem. Barriärer hittades, och var bristen på informationskommunikationsinfrastruktur som gjorde de långa och intressentintensiva projekten med hög personalomsättning svåra att hantera. Andra barriärer var klassiska såsom olika incitament på grund av decentralisering och olika målsättning. Andra orsaker var adhoc beslutsfattande, projektmedlemmar arbetande i silos och svårigheter att förstå vad kunder söker värde.

Abstract Large engineering projects are executed by a network of heterogeneous organisations. In order to be effective, risk management in large engineering projects needs to take the perspective of the entire project network instead of focusing on risk management practices of single actors. Contextual factors such as complexity of the project network and the challenging institutional environment pose additional challenges to risk management. The purpose of this study is to increase the understanding of the sources of risks in engineering project networks and the role of risk sources in determining risk management practices. The perspective of information processing theory is used. The role of equivocality and uncertainty as organisations’ rationales for processing information is examined to gain new insights into the selection of appropriate risk management practices. Literature introduces relational contracting as a response to the need for collaboration in project networks. In this study collaborative risk management practices in the workshop-type meeting and in the project alliance were studied. A qualitative research method was employed to study the nature of risk sources, the role of risk sources in determining risk management practices and collaborative risk management practices. The results of this study enhance the understanding of the nature of risks in engineering project networks. The current project risk management literature proposes that contextual factors related to technology, organising projects and environment increase uncertainty in projects. This study shows that it is relevant to categorise risk sources based on their contingency factors related to uncertainty (lack of information) and to equivocality (the existence of multiple interpretations). It is shown how risk sources impact the selection of project risk management practices. Collaborative risk management practices of workshop-type meeting and project alliance are depicted. Project-based companies and organisations executing investment projects can benefit from the results of this study. This study can guide managers when developing practices to enhance risk management. This study shows how informal risk management practices should be considered in addition to the traditional formal risk management practices, particularly in cases when projects confront situations of equivocality. / Tiivistelmä Suuria projekteja toteutetaan heterogeenisten organisaatioiden muodostaman projektiverkoston avulla. Projektiverkoston tehokkaaseen riskienhallintaan tarvitaan koko verkoston näkökulma yhden organisaation näkökulman sijaan. Tilannetekijät kuten projektiverkoston monimuotoisuus ja projektin haasteellinen ympäristö asettavat lisää haasteita riskienhallinnalle. Tämän väitöskirjan tavoitteena on lisätä ymmärrystä siitä, mitkä ovat riskien lähteitä projekteissa ja kuinka riskien lähteet vaikuttavat riskienhallintamenetelmien valintaan. Väitöskirjassa on käytetty teoreettisena viitekehyksenä informaation prosessoinnin näkökulmaa. Erityisesti on tutkittu monimerkityksisyyden ja epävarmuuden roolia organisaatioiden perusteena käsitellä informaatiota. Kirjallisuudessa on esitetty luottamukseen perustuva sopiminen vastauksena projektiverkostojen yhteistoiminnallisuuden tarpeelle. Väitöskirjassa on tutkittu yhteistoiminnallisina riskienhallintamuotoina työpajatyyppistä työskentelyä sekä projektiallianssia. Tutkimuksessa on tapaustutkimuksen avulla selvitetty projektien riskien lähteitä, riskien lähteiden roolia riskienhallintamenetelmiä määritettäessä, sekä yhteistoiminnallisia riskienhallintakeinoja. Tutkimuksen löydökset lisäävät ymmärrystä projektien riskien lähteistä. Nykyinen projektin riskienhallintakirjallisuus esittää, että projektien tilannetekijät, jotka liittyvät teknologiaan, projektien organisointiin ja ympäristöön kasvattavat epävarmuutta. Tämä tutkimus osoittaa, että on tärkeää jaotella projektien riskit tilannetekijöittäin. Jaottelu tulee tehdä sen mukaan onko vallitseva tilannetekijä epävarmuus eli tiedon puute vai monimerkityksisyys eli tilanne, jossa on paljon keskenään ristiriitaista tietoa. Tässä tutkimuksessa osoitetaan kuinka riskien lähteet vaikuttavat projektiverkoston riskienhallintamenetelmien valintaan. Lisäksi kuvataan yhteistoiminnallisia riskienhallintamenetelmiä projekteissa. Projektitoimintaa harjoittavat yritykset sekä investointiprojekteja tekevät organisaatiot voivat hyödyntää tämän tutkimuksen tuloksia. Tutkimuksen tulokset ohjaavat riskienhallintamenetelmien muokkaamista erilaiset tilannetekijät huomioon ottaen. Tämä tutkimus osoittaa, kuinka epämuodollisia riskienhallintamenetelmiä tulisi suosia perinteisten muodollisten menetelmien ohessa erityisesti tilanteissa, joissa monimerkityksisyys on vallitseva tilannetekijä.