A síntese de imagens é uma ferramenta valiosa na compreensão de diversos fenômenos da natureza. Nos últimos anos várias abordagens têm sido propostas para sintetizar tais fenômenos. A grande maioria de tais abordagens têm se centralizado no desenvolvimento de modelos procedurais. Porém, cada uma destas técnicas simula exclusivamente um fenômeno natural. Um dos métodos de síntese de imagens fotorealísticas mais proeminente é denominado de Traçado de Raios (Ray Tracing). Contudo, apesar de produzir imagens de excelente qualidade, este método é computacionalmente muito oneroso. A síntese de fenômenos naturais utilizando-se o traçado de raios é um desafio. É importante que este problema seja abordado, apesar da sua complexidade, pois a simulaçao fotorealista da natureza é muito importante para os cientistas e pesquisadores desde o surgimento dos computadores. Um algoritmo versátil e rápido para a síntese de fenômenos da natureza através do traçado de raios utilizando campos de altitude é proposto. O algoritmo utiliza uma modificação do algoritmo do Analisador Diferencial Digital de Bresenham para atravesar uma matriz bidimensional de valores de altitude. A determinação das primitivas geométricas a serem interseccionadas por um raio é obtida num tempo ( N ) , sendo N o número de altitudes no campo de altitude. Este trabalho faz uma comparação em termos de velocidade e realismo deste método com outras abordagens convencionais; e discute as implicações que a implementação deste método traz. Finalmente, destaca-se a simplicidade e versatilidade que este método proporciona devido à pequena quantidade de parâmetros necessária para a síntese de fenômenos naturais utilizando o traçado de raios. Para a criação de animações basta a especificação de novos parâmetros num intervalo de tempo diferente. / Visualization is a powerful tool for better undestanding of several natural phenomena. In recent years, several techniques have been proposed. Considerable interest in natural scene synthesis has focused on procedural models. However, these techniques produce synthetic scenes of only one natural phenomenon. Ray tracing is one of the most photorealistic methods of image syntesis. While providing images of excellent quality, ray tracing is a computationally intensive task. Natural scene synthesis is a challenging problem within the realm of ray tracing. It is important to tackle this problem, despite of its complexity, because photorealistic simulation have been important to scientific community since the appearance of computers. A fast and versatile algorithm for ray tracing natural scenes through height fields is presented. The algorithm employs a modified Bresenham DDA to traverse a two dimensional array of values. The objects tested for intersection are located in ( N ) time where N is the number of values in the field. This work compares the speed-up and photorealism achieved in natural scene synthesis using this method with other algorithms and discusses the implications of implementing this approach. As a final point, the simplicity and versatility of synthesizing complex natural scenes from a few parameters and data is especially attractive. Animated sequences require only the additional specifications of time modified parameters or data.

Neisseria meningitidis é um diplococo Gramnegativo, aeróbio e encapsulado, causador mais comum de meningite e septicemia. Este agente é o principal causador de infecções bacterianas invasivas no mundo. Apesar de existirem 13 sorogrupos de N. meningitidis, apenas 6 são capazes de causar infecção: A, B, C, W135, X e Y. O sorogrupo B difere dos outros sorogrupos patogênicos por sua cápsula polissacáride ter composição idêntica ao ácido policiálico, presente em muitas glicoproteínas humanas, particularmente encontrados no tecido cerebral fetal, e bioquimicamente homóloga com a estrutura molecular de adesão do neurônio. Sendo assim, a cápsula polissacáride não pode ser usada em vacinas conjugadas, pois pode causar autoimunidade, sendo pouco imunogênica. Doenças meningocócicas causadas pelos sorogrupos A, C, Y e W135 podem ser prevenidas pelas vacinas que contêm polissacarídeos capsulares específicos conjugados. Para que uma vacina seja eficaz contra o sorogrupo B, é importante que esta abranja todos os sorotipos e seja capaz de promover imunidade duradoura, principalmente em crianças abaixo de dois anos, as mais acometidas. Vacinas baseadas em vesículas de membrana externa (OMVs, do inglês Outer Membrane Vesicles) de N. meningitidis B são amplamente estudadas. No presente estudo, OMVs de meningococo B (B:4:P1.9) foram associadas a um lipídio catiônico, o dioctadecildimetilamônio (DDA-BF) em preparação antigênica testada em camundongos fêmeas não isogênicos, e comparamos os títulos de anticorpos IgG, IgG1, IgG2a e IgG2b com os anticorpos produzidos por camundongos imunizados com a mesma OMVS associada ao hidróxido de alumínio, por ELISA. As análises foram realizadas com soros de cada animal colhidos individualmente, após 60 dias de imunização. A avidez dos anticorpos também foi analisada por ELISA. Immunoblot e Dot-ELISA avaliaram a reação específica entre a cepa homóloga usada na imunização e a reação a antígenos cruzados com outras cepas de meningococo. A hipersensibilidade tardia (HTT) foi comparada entre os dois grupos experimentais, após o desafio com cepa homóloga em uma das patas, depois de 24 horas da injeção, após 14 dias da primeira dose de imunização. / Neisseria meningitidis is an encapsulated Gram-negative aerobic diplococcus, the most commom meningitidis and sepsis agent , and the major bacterial invasive disease agent worldwide. Infections are caused by only 6 of 13 pathogenic serogroups: A,B,C, W135 and Y. Meningococcal serogroup B differs from the other pathogenic serogroups because it has a capsular polysaccharide identical to the polysialic acid present in many human glycoproteins, in particular, it is similar to carbohydrates found in fetal brain tissue. This is the reason that it does not allow the use of polysaccharide protein in conjugate vaccine, and for its low immunogenic. An effective meningococcal B vaccine development should cover all serotypes and be able to promote long term immunity, mainly in children under 2 years, the most affected age. Meningococcal outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) vaccines are widely studied. In this present study, meningococcal serogroup B OMVs (B:4:P1.9) was associated with a cationic lipid, dioctadecyldimetylammonium (DDA-BF) in an antigenic preparation tested in female outbred mice. Individual serum was collected, and antibodies titles IgG, IgG1, IgG2a were compared with animals immunized with OMVs and aluminium hydroxide, analyzed by ELISA. Analyses were carried out 60 days after first immunization. Antibodies avidity index were also analyzed by ELISA. Immunoblot and Dot-ELISA were carried out to evaluate specific reaction for homologous stranis and cross-reactive antigens present in other meningococcal strains. Delayed type hypersensitivity (DTH) was compared between two experimental groups, 24 hours before injection of homologous strain challenge.

Na primeira parte do estudo camundongos Swiss foram imunizados por diferentes vias de imunização com OMVs de Neissera meningitidis com DDA-BF ou HA como adjuvantes . Os adjuvantes e diferentes vias foram comparados quanto às respostas imunes por meio de ELISA ,Immunoblot ,HTT e análise histopatológica. Os animais imunizados apenas com adjuvantes não produziram títulos de anticorpos. Após única dose e decorridos 15 dias, a imunização com HA e antígeno apresentou títulos de IgG mais altos em relação ao DDA-BF nas vias subcutânea, intraperitoneal e intramuscular. Após 2 doses e 66 dias, todas as vias exibiram títulos de IgG, sendo as que receberam o HA com OMVs produziram títulos discretamente mais altos e ainda altos índices de avidez. O perfil da resposta imune quanto ao padrão Th1/Th2 foi avaliado. Ambos adjuvantes promoveram a produção de IgG2a, as respostas variaram de acordo com as vias de imunização utilizada. Enquanto as vias subcutânea e intramuscular induziram títulos semelhantes de IgG2a para ambos adjuvantes, a via intraperitoneal com DDA teve título mais alto. A produção de IgG1 foi modulada apenas por HA, sendo mais robusta na via subcutânea, seguida pela intramuscular com valores muito próximos aos da intraperitoneal. Camundongos isogênicos Balb/c H2d e C57Bl/6J H2b foram imunizados pela via subcutânea. Foram avaliadas as produções de anticorpos do tipo IgG, IgG1 e IgG2a, bem como o índice de avidez de IgG. De modo geral, os grupos de OMVs HA induziram maior produção de anticorpos que OMVs DDA ou apenas OMVs, enquanto os controles HA, DDA e salina não apresentaram níveis de anticorpos. Pelas técnicas utilizadas no estudo não observamos uma diferença significante entre os dois adjuvantes utilizados independente da via e da linhagem de camundongos utilizados. / In the first part of the study Swiss mice were immunized by different routes of immunization with OMVs of Neisseria meningitidis with DDA-BF or HA as adjuvants. Adjuvants and different routes were compared regarding immune responses through ELISA, Immunoblot, HTT and histopathological analysis. Animals immunized with only adjuvants did not produce evidence of antibodies. After single dose and 15 days, of immunization with HA presented antigen specific IgG higher in relation to the DDa-BF in the subcutaneous, intraperitoneal and intramuscular immunization . After 2 doses and 66 days, all exhibited IgG, and the bonds that received the HA with OMVs produced titles discreetly higher and still high levels of antibodies. The profile of the immune response to Th1/Th2 pattern has been evaluated. Both adjuvants promoted the production of IgG2a, the responses varied according to the immunization routes used. While the subcutaneous and intramuscular routes induced similar titles of IgG2a to both adjuvant intraperitoneal route with had highest title. IgG1 production was modulated only by HA, being more robust in subcutaneous injection, followed by intramuscular with values very close to those of intraperitoneal. Isogenic Balb/c and C57Bl/6J H2d H2b mice were immunized by subcutaneous administration. Been evaluated antibody production of type IgG, IgG1 and IgG2a, as well as the IgG avidity index. In General, the greater production of OMVs HA induced antibodies that OMVs DDA or just OMVs, while the controls .DDA-BF and controls showed no antibody levels. The techniques used in the study did not observe a significant difference between the two adjuvants used independent of the route and of mice strains used.

The purpose of this thesis is to create an simple graphic library in the programming C language, through which it will be possible to draw and simulate the basic functions of a car backlight, and subseguently to create the graphic user interface.v The first part of the thesis is based on the study of the given issue, briefly it describes the differences between raster and vector graphics,most used formats, describes diverse color models and the area of their use, ,basic graphic adapters, video memorry and its control in the operating system Linux. In the second part there is stated the practical realization of the basic graphic algorithms needed for drawing the algorithm primitives. An mathematical aparatus described in detail and well-founded with formulas. Also there are the advantages and disatvantages of each used algorithm and their realization in the programming C language. The 3rd and the last part of the thesis is dedicated to the creation of the graphic user interface in the FreePascal programming language and further to the describtion of his main elements.

Neisseria meningitidis é um diplococo Gramnegativo, aeróbio e encapsulado, causador mais comum de meningite e septicemia. Este agente é o principal causador de infecções bacterianas invasivas no mundo. Apesar de existirem 13 sorogrupos de N. meningitidis, apenas 6 são capazes de causar infecção: A, B, C, W135, X e Y. O sorogrupo B difere dos outros sorogrupos patogênicos por sua cápsula polissacáride ter composição idêntica ao ácido policiálico, presente em muitas glicoproteínas humanas, particularmente encontrados no tecido cerebral fetal, e bioquimicamente homóloga com a estrutura molecular de adesão do neurônio. Sendo assim, a cápsula polissacáride não pode ser usada em vacinas conjugadas, pois pode causar autoimunidade, sendo pouco imunogênica. Doenças meningocócicas causadas pelos sorogrupos A, C, Y e W135 podem ser prevenidas pelas vacinas que contêm polissacarídeos capsulares específicos conjugados. Para que uma vacina seja eficaz contra o sorogrupo B, é importante que esta abranja todos os sorotipos e seja capaz de promover imunidade duradoura, principalmente em crianças abaixo de dois anos, as mais acometidas. Vacinas baseadas em vesículas de membrana externa (OMVs, do inglês Outer Membrane Vesicles) de N. meningitidis B são amplamente estudadas. No presente estudo, OMVs de meningococo B (B:4:P1.9) foram associadas a um lipídio catiônico, o dioctadecildimetilamônio (DDA-BF) em preparação antigênica testada em camundongos fêmeas não isogênicos, e comparamos os títulos de anticorpos IgG, IgG1, IgG2a e IgG2b com os anticorpos produzidos por camundongos imunizados com a mesma OMVS associada ao hidróxido de alumínio, por ELISA. As análises foram realizadas com soros de cada animal colhidos individualmente, após 60 dias de imunização. A avidez dos anticorpos também foi analisada por ELISA. Immunoblot e Dot-ELISA avaliaram a reação específica entre a cepa homóloga usada na imunização e a reação a antígenos cruzados com outras cepas de meningococo. A hipersensibilidade tardia (HTT) foi comparada entre os dois grupos experimentais, após o desafio com cepa homóloga em uma das patas, depois de 24 horas da injeção, após 14 dias da primeira dose de imunização. / Neisseria meningitidis is an encapsulated Gram-negative aerobic diplococcus, the most commom meningitidis and sepsis agent , and the major bacterial invasive disease agent worldwide. Infections are caused by only 6 of 13 pathogenic serogroups: A,B,C, W135 and Y. Meningococcal serogroup B differs from the other pathogenic serogroups because it has a capsular polysaccharide identical to the polysialic acid present in many human glycoproteins, in particular, it is similar to carbohydrates found in fetal brain tissue. This is the reason that it does not allow the use of polysaccharide protein in conjugate vaccine, and for its low immunogenic. An effective meningococcal B vaccine development should cover all serotypes and be able to promote long term immunity, mainly in children under 2 years, the most affected age. Meningococcal outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) vaccines are widely studied. In this present study, meningococcal serogroup B OMVs (B:4:P1.9) was associated with a cationic lipid, dioctadecyldimetylammonium (DDA-BF) in an antigenic preparation tested in female outbred mice. Individual serum was collected, and antibodies titles IgG, IgG1, IgG2a were compared with animals immunized with OMVs and aluminium hydroxide, analyzed by ELISA. Analyses were carried out 60 days after first immunization. Antibodies avidity index were also analyzed by ELISA. Immunoblot and Dot-ELISA were carried out to evaluate specific reaction for homologous stranis and cross-reactive antigens present in other meningococcal strains. Delayed type hypersensitivity (DTH) was compared between two experimental groups, 24 hours before injection of homologous strain challenge.

In order to resolve the Al void formation originated from the severe stress issues in dynamic random access memory (DRAM), double-deposited-aluminum (DDA) layer process was proposed. This novel metallization process can be effectively and simply performed with the native oxide such as Al 2 O 3 between upper and lower Al metal layer by ex-situ deposition technique. We could effectively control the Al void by adapting the DDA layers with different grain structure. From this novel metallization process, we have confirmed the optimal thickness of Al barrier metal to 100Å to be free from Al voids, which makes it possible to improve the static refresh characteristics of DRAM by 17%.

The Distinct Element Method (DEM) and Discontinuous Deformation Analysis (DDA) are the two most commonly used discrete element methods in rock mechanics. Discrete element approaches are computationally expensive as they involve the interaction of multiple discrete bodies with continuously changing contacts. Therefore, it is very important to ensure that the method selected for the analysis is computationally efficient. In this research, a general assessment of DDA and DEM is performed from a computational efficiency perspective, and relevant enhancements to DDA are developed. The computational speed of DDA is observed to be considerably slower than DEM. In order to identify reasons affecting the computational efficiency of DDA, fundamental aspects of DDA and DEM are compared which suggests that they mainly differ in the contact mechanics, and the time integration scheme used. An in-depth evaluation of these aspects revealed that the openclose iterative procedure used in DDA which exhibits highly nonlinear behavior is one of the main reasons causing DDA to slow down. In order to improve the computational efficiency of DDA, an alternative approach based on a more realistic rock joint behavior is developed in this research. In this approach, contacts are assumed to be deformable, i.e., interpenetrations of the blocks in contact are permitted. This eliminated the computationally expensive open-close iterative procedure adopted in DDA-Shi and enhanced its speed up to four times. In order to consider deformability of the blocks in DDA, several approaches are reported. The hybrid DDA-FEM approach is one of them, although this approach captures the block deformability quite effectively, it becomes computationally expensive for large-scale problems. An alternative simplified uncoupled DDA-FEM approach is developed in this research. The main idea of this approach is to model rigid body movement and the block internal deformation separately. Efficiency and simplicity of this approach lie in keeping the DDA and the FEM algorithms separate and solving FEM equations individually for each block. Based on a number of numerical examples presented in this dissertation, it is concluded that from a computational efficiency standpoint, the implicit solution scheme may not be appropriate for discrete element modelling. Although for quasi-static problems where inertia effects are insignificant, implicit schemes have been successfully used for linear analyses, they do not prove to be advantageous for contact-type problems even in quasi-static mode due to the highly nonlinear behavior of contacts.

The pseudo-spectral time domain (PSTD) and discrete dipole approximation (DDA) are two of the most popular methods to model the single-scattering properties of ice crystals and aerosols. Both methods solve for Maxwell’s equations. The PSTD method uses a Fourier pseudo-spectral method and a finite-difference method to compute the spatial and temporal derivatives of electromagnetic fields. The DDA method uses an electromagnetic integral equation in the frequency domain to calculate the single-scattering properties. We used a spherical model for this study because the analytical solution was given by the Lorenz-Mie theory. Previous studies have found that at refractive indices between 1.2 and 1.5, PSTD computed the single-scattering properties of spherical particles faster for large size parameters, while DDA was more computationally efficient at small size parameters; however, these previous studies did not consider absorptive cases. The purpose of this study was to expand the range of refractive indices to include absorptive cases and to determine which method was more efficient for computing the single-scattering properties of atmospheric particles within set criteria. The PSTD and DDA methods were systematically assessed in this study for 31 different realistic complex refractive indices. Similar to the previous studies, it was found that PSTD was more efficient than DDA for particles with large size parameters. The results in this study were consistent with the previous studies for non-absorptive to moderately absorptive particles. However, for strongly absorptive cases, DDA was more efficient than PSTD at all size parameters for the absorptive particles. It was also determined that the efficiencies of the two methods were dependent on both the real and imaginary parts of the complex refractive index. The significance of this study was to improve our understanding of the capabilities of the PSTD and DDA methods for computing single-scattering properties.

The Distinct Element Method (DEM) and Discontinuous Deformation Analysis (DDA) are the two most commonly used discrete element methods in rock mechanics. Discrete element approaches are computationally expensive as they involve the interaction of multiple discrete bodies with continuously changing contacts. Therefore, it is very important to ensure that the method selected for the analysis is computationally efficient. In this research, a general assessment of DDA and DEM is performed from a computational efficiency perspective, and relevant enhancements to DDA are developed. The computational speed of DDA is observed to be considerably slower than DEM. In order to identify reasons affecting the computational efficiency of DDA, fundamental aspects of DDA and DEM are compared which suggests that they mainly differ in the contact mechanics, and the time integration scheme used. An in-depth evaluation of these aspects revealed that the openclose iterative procedure used in DDA which exhibits highly nonlinear behavior is one of the main reasons causing DDA to slow down. In order to improve the computational efficiency of DDA, an alternative approach based on a more realistic rock joint behavior is developed in this research. In this approach, contacts are assumed to be deformable, i.e., interpenetrations of the blocks in contact are permitted. This eliminated the computationally expensive open-close iterative procedure adopted in DDA-Shi and enhanced its speed up to four times. In order to consider deformability of the blocks in DDA, several approaches are reported. The hybrid DDA-FEM approach is one of them, although this approach captures the block deformability quite effectively, it becomes computationally expensive for large-scale problems. An alternative simplified uncoupled DDA-FEM approach is developed in this research. The main idea of this approach is to model rigid body movement and the block internal deformation separately. Efficiency and simplicity of this approach lie in keeping the DDA and the FEM algorithms separate and solving FEM equations individually for each block. Based on a number of numerical examples presented in this dissertation, it is concluded that from a computational efficiency standpoint, the implicit solution scheme may not be appropriate for discrete element modelling. Although for quasi-static problems where inertia effects are insignificant, implicit schemes have been successfully used for linear analyses, they do not prove to be advantageous for contact-type problems even in quasi-static mode due to the highly nonlinear behavior of contacts.

Games are irritating when they are too hard, and boring when they are too easy. Level Eight is a game development company which is, during this project, developing an endless runner. This thesis describes research and implementation of a dynamic difficulty adjustment system in Level Eights’ endless runner by considering several conditions of the player. This was accomplished with the help of the game environment by implementing procedural content generation and combine it with the dynamic difficulty adjustment system. / Spel är irriterande när de är för svåra, och tråkiga när de är för lätta. Level Eight är ett spelutvecklingsföretag som under detta projekt utvecklar ett ändlöst löparspel. Denna avhandling beskriver forskning och genomförande av ett dynamiskt svårighets justeringssystem i Level Eights ändlöst löparspel genom att överväga flera villkor för spelaren. Detta uppnåddes med hjälp av spelmiljön genom att implementera procedurell innehållsgenerering och kombinera den med det dynamiska svårighets justering systemet.