Prevalence findings for 1995 of illicit drug use as well as DSM-IV abuse and dependence are reported from a representative population sample of 3,021 respondents from Munich, Germany, aged 14–24 years. Results are based on personal interviews using the M-Composite International Diagnostic Interview (M-CIDI) with its DSM-IV diagnostic algorithms. Findings indicate that more than 30% of the adolescents and young adults are or have been using one or more illicit drugs at least once in their life. Men were slightly more likely to ever use drugs and used them more frequently than women. Cannabinoids were by far the most frequently used type of drug, followed by various stimulating drugs and hallucinogens. There is also considerable polysubstance use among 14- to 24-year-olds. Criteria for DSM-IV abuse without dependence were met by 4.1% of all men and 1.8% of all women, a dependence syndrome of any type of illicit drug was diagnosed in 2.5% of the men and 1.6% of the women. Cumulative age of onset incidence analyses suggest that substance use starts early, in about one-third before the age of 16 years and continues to rise for most drugs throughout adolescence and young adulthood. Overall these findings suggest that substance use and substance disorders are more prevalent than suggested in most previous German studies.

No description available.

This study compares lifetime prevalence and age of first use (onset) for alcohol, cannabis, and other drugs in six international sites. Data from seven epidemiologic field surveys that used compatible instruments and study designs were compiled for cross-site analyses by the International Consortium of Psychiatric Epidemiology (ICPE). The world health organization’s composite international diagnostic instrument (WHO-CIDI) and additional items were used to ascertain drug use in each site. Lifetime use rates were estimated for alcohol, cannabis, and other illicit drugs. Survival analyses were used to estimate age of onset. Study settings and main results: use of alcohol twelve or more times ranged in descending order from the Netherlands (86.3%), United States (71.7%), Ontario, Canada (71.6%); São Paulo, Brazil (66.1%), Munich, Germany (64.9%), Fresno, California (USA) (51.9%), to Mexico City (43.2%). Use of cannabis five or more times in a lifetime ranged from 28.8 in the United States to 1.7% in Mexico City, and other drugs ranged from United States (19.4%) to Mexico City (1.7%). Age of first use was similar across study sites. This study demonstrates the fundamental uniformity of onset patterns by age as contrasted with wide variations in lifetime prevalences across sites. Study findings suggest that drug use patterns may change among emigrating populations from low consumption nations as a consequence of international resettlement in nations with higher rates. Methodological limitations of the study along with recommendations for future international comparative research are discussed.

Background: Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and substance use disorders (SUDs) often co-occur in adolescent patients. Previous research has shown that these patients differ from SUD patients without PTSD in terms of their substance use patterns. In this study, we aimed to test whether substance use in this population is related to an attempt to self-medicate PTSD-related symptoms. - Methods: German adolescent patients (aged 13–18 years) at an outpatient clinic for SUD treatment, n = 111 (43% female), completed a self-designed questionnaire on use motives, a measure of PTSD-related experiences, and underwent a standardized psychiatric interview including structured substance use questions. Participants were subsequently classified as ‘no traumatic experiences (‘noTEs’ but SUD), ‘traumatic experiences but no current PTSD diagnosis’ (‘TEs’ with SUD), and ‘PTSD’ with SUD. After establishing a self-designed motive measurement through exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses, we calculated non-parametric group differences and a mediation analysis in a linear regression framework. - Results: The past-year frequency of MDMA use was highest in the PTSD group and lowest in the noTE group (H (2) = 7.2, p = .027, η² = .058), but no differences were found for frequencies of tobacco, alcohol, cannabis, or stimulant use (all H ≤ 4.9, p ≥ .085, η² ≤ .033). While controlling for sex, the three groups showed a similar pattern (highest in the PTSD group and lowest in the noTE group) for coping scores (F (103) = 5.77, p = .004, η² = .101). Finally, mediation analyses revealed an indirect effect of coping score (b = 0.61, 95% CI [0.29, 1.58], p = .145) on the association between group membership and MDMA use frequency. - Conclusions: In adolescent SUD patients, we found an association of current PTSD and lifetime traumatic experiences with higher MDMA use that could be partially explained by substance use being motivated by an attempt to cope with mental health symptoms. This indicates a coping process involved specifically in MDMA use compared to the use of other psychoactive substances, possibly due to unique psychoactive effects of MDMA.

Um Terroranschläge zu verhindern, werden schnelle, hochempfindliche Detektoren für Sprengstoffe benötigt. Neben Sprengstoffen ist auch der Drogenhandel ein großes gesellschaftliches Problem, welcher kriminelle Organisationen finanziert. Da bereits geringe Mengen an TNT oder Kokain einen Hinweis auf einen Anschlag oder auf Drogenschmuggel darstellen, muss der verwendete Detektor schnell aber dabei gleichzeitig sensitiv und selektiv sein. In dieser Arbeit wurde daher ein Biosensor zur Drogen und Sprengstoff Detektion, der auf auf einem Immunoassay basiert, entwickelt. Um die Performance sicherzustellen, wurden die genutzten Antikörper gründlich auf Eignung untersucht. Für die Affinitätssäule wurden monolithische Säulen hergestellt, welche eine hohe Oberfläche aufweisen. Zur Beschichtung der Säulen wurden Protein-Konjugate synthetisiert. Die Affinitätssäulen waren robust und zeigten eine sehr hohe Binde-Effizienz. Als Detektor wurde ein Fluoreszenz-Mikroskop aus kommerziellen Bauteilen konstruiert. Für den genutzten Fluoreszenzfarbstoff wurde eine Nachweisgrenze von 2 pM sowie ein dynamischer Bereich bis 1000 pM erreicht. Für die Fluidik wurden eine Spritzenpumpe sowie mikrofluidische Bauteile genutzt, welche eine Detektionszeit von 1.5 Minuten ermöglichten. Für TNT wurde mit dem Biosensor eine Nachweisgrenze von 130 pM erzielt. Der Biosensor zeigte außerdem keine Kreuzreaktivität mit gängigen Sprengstoffen. Für Kokain wurde eine Nachweisgrenze von 15 pM im Biosensor erreicht. Zusätzlich wurde für Kokain ein Wischtest entwickelt, welcher in drei Minuten Kokainmengen von 300 pg detektieren kann. Der entwickelte Biosensor gehört zu den besten Sensoren zur TNT- und Kokaindetektion und zeigt eine vergleichbare oder bessere Performance als Flüssigchromatographie mit Massenspektrometrie-Kopplung. Die Flexibilität beim Analyten sowie der Verzicht auf Lösungsmittel machen diesen Biosensor zu einem interessanten Kandidaten für hochempfindliche Messsysteme. / The fast detection of explosives is essential to prevent terror attacks. Besides explosives, the trafficking of illegal drugs is a major problem, which must be addressed to reduce criminal organizations’ revenue streams. As low amounts of these substances may indicate trafficking or a bomb threat, sensitive, selective and fast detection methods are required. Therefore, a biosensor was developed in this work, which relies on an immunoassay. To ensure sensitive and selective performance the used antibodies were characterized in depth. To obtain affinity columns, glass columns were manufactured and used. As column coating affinity conjugates were synthesized. The affinity columns showed efficient antibody trapping and were long-term stable. As a detector an epi-fluorescence microscope was built to monitor the sample. The sensor features consumer-grade parts rendering it easily accessible. For the used fluorophore a limit of detection (LOD) of 2 ppt with a linear range up to 1000 pM was achieved. Due to the use of a syringe pump and an injection valve a continuous fluidic for the biosensor was obtained. The used microfluidic parts resulted in detection times of only 1.5 min. For TNT a LOD of 130 pM was achieved. Additionally, the biosensor showed no cross-reactivity with common high explosives. For cocaine a LOD of 15 pM in solution was achieved and a surface wipe sampling method was demonstrated, which was able to detect 300 pg cocaine on surfaces within three minutes reliably. This biosensor belongs to the fastest and most sensitive cocaine and TNT detectors with sensitivity on par or better than liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectroscopy. Furthermore, the biosensor is affordable, very modular analyte-wise and requires no solvents or microplastic carriers. Therefore, it is a fascinating approach for future high-sensitivity monitoring applications.

Innerhalb dieser Arbeit wurde ein kompetitiver ELISA etabliert und validiert, der eine Quantifizierung von Drogen im humanen Serum gemäß geltender Richtlinien ermöglicht. Der Nachweis erzielte zudem vergleichbare Ergebnisse zur Referenzmethode (Massenspektrometrie). Es wurden neun Drogen (Amphetamin, Methamphetamin, Methylenedioxymethamphetamin (MDMA), Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), Phencyclidin (PCP), Methadon, Morphin, Kokain und Benzoylecgonin) und insgesamt 33 Antikörper verwendet. Alle Reagenzien durchliefen zunächst ein stringentes Validierungsverfahren. Nach Ausschluss möglicher Kreuzreaktivitäten konnten für drei Drogen (Methadon, MDMA und Benzoylecgonin) jeweils ein Antikörper bestimmt werden, der eine spezifische und sensitive Quantifizierung der Droge ermöglichte. Mit dem anti-MDMA Antikörper war zusätzlich der Nachweis in einem miniaturisierten Format (Microarray) möglich. Die verwendeten Antikörper zeigten keine Kreuzreaktivitäten mit anderen Drogen, Antikörpern, dem Probenmaterial oder anderen Versuchskomponenten. Weiterhin wurde kein Einfluss etwaiger Abbauprodukte im langfristig gelagerten Serum beobachtet. Durch die Ergebnisse wird gezeigt, dass ein immunologischer Nachweis von Drogenmissbrauch in Serum eine verlässliche Ergänzung zu bestehenden Methoden darstellt. Bei einer Übertragung des immunologischen Ansatzes auf ein Microarray ergibt sich zudem die Möglichkeit mehrere Drogen und Serumproben parallel nachzuweisen bzw. zu vermessen. Der höhere Probendurchsatz, der kompakte Versuchsaufbau und der geringere Verbrauch an Material gehört zu den größten Vorteilen dieser Technik. / A competitive ELISA was established, which enables a reliable quantification of serological drug samples according to current guidelines. The method achieved comparable results to the standard method mass spectrometry. In total nine drugs (amphetamine, methamphetamine, 3,4-methylenedioxy-methamphetamine (MDMA), tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), phencyclidine (PCP), methadone, morphine, cocaine and benzoylecgonine) and 33 antibodies were tested. All reagents had to pass through a stringent validation process. After exclusion of cross-reactivities antibodies against three drugs (methadone, MDMA, benzoylecgonine) were validated, which allowed a specific and sensitive quantification. Additionally, by using the anti-MDMA antibody a detection of MDMA in serum on microarray (miniaturized format) was achieved. No cross-reactivities were detected for the used antibodies with other drugs, antibodies, sample material or other assay components. Furthermore, no influence of degradation products in long-stored serum was recorded. The results prove, that immunoassays can be a reliable complement to existing methods. By adapting the immunological method to a microarray, the simultaneous quantification of various drugs and serum samples is enabled. The increased through-put, smaller footprint and the decreased consumption of reagents are some of the biggest advantages of this technique.

In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurden Einsatzmöglichkeiten der Headspace-Festpahsenmikroextraktion (HS-SPME) in Kombination mit der GC-MS für forensische und toxikologische Fragestellungen, insbesondere in der Haaranalytik, untersucht. Für basenstabile Drogen- und Medikamentenwirkstoffe wurden Nachweismethoden nach alkalischer Hydrolyse der Haare mit Natriumhydroxid und anschließender HS-SPME entwickelt. Für das Lokalanaesthetikum Lidocain und für das Heroinsubstitutionsmittel Methadon wurden optimierte Verfahren auf Haarproben von Drogentodesfällen angewandt. Um die Einsatzmöglichkeiten der HS-SPME gerade für Wirkstoffmetaboliten zu erweitern, wurden drei Derivatisierungsmöglichkeiten überprüft: (i) Umsetzung von primären und sekundären Aminen im alkalischen Haarhydrolysat mit Alkylchloroformiaten zu Carbamaten ("in sample" Derivatisierung), (ii) "On Fiber" Derivatisierung primärer und sekundärer Amine nach erfolgter HS-SPME mit N-Methyl-bis-trifluoracetamid (MBTFA) sowie (iii) Reaktion von Monofluoressigsäure mit 1-Pyrenyldiazomethan (PDAM) an einer vorher mit dem Derivatisierungsreagenz benetzten SPME-Faser. Fettsäureethylester konnten nach einer Flüssigextraktion der Haare von Alkoholikern mit einem DMSO/n-Hexan-Gemisch extrahiert und nach optimierter HS-SPME nachgewiesen werden. Im Vergleich zu Haarproben von Abstinenzlern und Gelegenheitstrinkern ergaben sich deutliche Unterschiede in den Konzentrationen. Für die schnelle Bestimmung von Valproinsäure und Trichlorethanol wurde eine Quantifizierungsmethode aus Blut- und Urinproben erarbeitet. Die Anwendung der HS-SPME ermöglichte eine schnelle, einfache und lösungsmittelfreie Extraktion bei geringem Probenverbrauch. Sie führte zu sauberen Extrakten und für dieses Verfahren hohen absoluten Extraktionsausbeuten. Bessere Reproduzierbarkeiten, ein hoher Probendurchsatz und eine verlängerte Einsetzbarkeit der SPME-Faser wurden durch die Verwendung eines automatischen Probengebers erreicht. / In the presented thesis possible fields of applications of the headspace solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME) in combination with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) for forensic and toxicological problems were investigated with special focus on hair analysis. Detection methods after alkaline hydrolysis of hair with sodium hydroxid and following HS-SPME were developed for basic stable drugs. For the local anaesthetic lidocaine and for the heroine substitute methadone optimized methods were applied to hair of drug fatalities. In order to enhance the fields of application of the HS-SPME especially for drug metabolites three derivatization procedures were tested: (i) conversion of primary and secondary amines in the alkaline hair extract with alkylchloroformates to carbamates ("in sample" derivatization), (ii) "on fibre" derivatization of primary and secondary amines after HS-SPME with N-methyl-bis-trifluoroacetamide (MBTFA) and (iii) reaction of monofluoroacetic acid (compound 1080) with 1-pyrenyldiazomethane (PDAM) on a SPME-fibre previously occupied with the derivatization reagent. Fatty acid ethyl ester (FAEE) could detected after liquid extraction from hair of alcoholics with a mixture of DMSO/n-hexane and optimized HS-SPME. In comparison to hair samples of teetotalers and social drinkers significant differences in the concentrations of the FAEE were found. A quantification method were developed for the fast determination of valproic acid and trichloroethanol from blood and urine. The application of HS-SPME allows a fast, simple and solvent free extraction from a small sample amount. HS-SPME lead to clean extracts and high absolute extraction yields for this kind of extraction. Better reproducibilities, a high sample throughput and extended lifetime of the SPME-fibre were obtained using an automatic sampler.

To provide background information about previous findings about the prevalence of use, abuse and dependence of various substances (nicotine, alcohol, prescription and illicit drugs) findings of available epidemiological studies in Germany from the 1980s and 1990s are summarized and critically evaluated. Focusing on findings of substance use surveys in adolescents and young adults the review indicates: (a) a considerable number of large scale questionnaire surveys in general population samples documenting the frequency of use and patterns of use of most substances; (b) indications of increasing rates of drug use particularly in East Germany; (c) high rates of illicit drug use, mainly of cannabinoids, but also stimulants and hallucinogens, among young age groups. No data are available from substance use surveys or from clinical epidemiological studies allowing the determination of how frequent substance abuse and substance dependence diagnoses are in the general population or in adolescents and young adults. Priorities for future research to ameliorate this unsatisfactory situation are outlined with emphasis on research in adolescents and young adults.

To provide background information about previous findings about the prevalence of use, abuse and dependence of various substances (nicotine, alcohol, prescription and illicit drugs) findings of available epidemiological studies in Germany from the 1980s and 1990s are summarized and critically evaluated. Focusing on findings of substance use surveys in adolescents and young adults the review indicates: (a) a considerable number of large scale questionnaire surveys in general population samples documenting the frequency of use and patterns of use of most substances; (b) indications of increasing rates of drug use particularly in East Germany; (c) high rates of illicit drug use, mainly of cannabinoids, but also stimulants and hallucinogens, among young age groups. No data are available from substance use surveys or from clinical epidemiological studies allowing the determination of how frequent substance abuse and substance dependence diagnoses are in the general population or in adolescents and young adults. Priorities for future research to ameliorate this unsatisfactory situation are outlined with emphasis on research in adolescents and young adults.

Prevalence findings for 1995 of illicit drug use as well as DSM-IV abuse and dependence are reported from a representative population sample of 3,021 respondents from Munich, Germany, aged 14–24 years. Results are based on personal interviews using the M-Composite International Diagnostic Interview (M-CIDI) with its DSM-IV diagnostic algorithms. Findings indicate that more than 30% of the adolescents and young adults are or have been using one or more illicit drugs at least once in their life. Men were slightly more likely to ever use drugs and used them more frequently than women. Cannabinoids were by far the most frequently used type of drug, followed by various stimulating drugs and hallucinogens. There is also considerable polysubstance use among 14- to 24-year-olds. Criteria for DSM-IV abuse without dependence were met by 4.1% of all men and 1.8% of all women, a dependence syndrome of any type of illicit drug was diagnosed in 2.5% of the men and 1.6% of the women. Cumulative age of onset incidence analyses suggest that substance use starts early, in about one-third before the age of 16 years and continues to rise for most drugs throughout adolescence and young adulthood. Overall these findings suggest that substance use and substance disorders are more prevalent than suggested in most previous German studies.