Die vorliegende Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit der Entwicklung von anwendungsspezifisch angepassten und drucktechnisch herstellbaren Antennen für Radio‐Frequency‐Identification (RFID) Anwendungen im Ultra‐High‐Frequency (UHF) und Super‐High‐Frequency (SHF) Frequenzbereich. Dabei werden alle Entwicklungsschritte und deren Abhängigkeiten vom Antennenentwurf über die Simulation, die Herstellung im Druckverfahren und die Antennenvermessung betrachtet. Die Alleinstellungsmerkmale der vorliegenden Arbeit liegen in der Erforschung von Antennen, welche eine hohe Funktionalität in herausfordernden dielektrischen oder metallischen Umgebungen (Glas, Holz, Papier, Aluminium, …) aufweisen sowie im Druckverfahren hergestellt werden. Mit Hilfe von FEM‐ und MoM‐Berechnungen werden neu entwickelte Antennenkonzepte wie 898 MHz‐Dipolantennen, 868 MHz‐Längsstrahler‐ Antennenkonfigurationen, 868 MHz‐(Reflektor)‐Antennenkonfigurationen und 5.8 GHz‐3D‐Dipol‐ Antennendesigns zur Erhöhung der Kommunikationsfähigkeit untersucht und beschrieben. Dabei werden hinsichtlich der 868 MHz‐Längsstrahler‐Antennenkonfiguration, zur Funktion in direkter metallischer Umgebung, Performance mindernde Depolarisationseffekte nachgewiesen. Eine Minimierung dieser Effekte wird mit der gezielten Krümmung elektromagnetischer Wellenfronten zwischen abstrahlendem Antennenelement und Reflektor erreicht. Der Nachweis wird anhand einer selbst entwickelten 868 MHz‐(Reflektor)‐Antennenkonfiguration geführt. Um die Leistungsfähigkeit gedruckter Antennen weiter zu steigern, werden Antennen mit gerichteter Abstrahlcharakteristik mit einer Resonanzfrequenz von 5.8 GHz und einer Frequenzbandbreite von 150 MHz entworfen. Als ein Ergebnis werden Antennen mit dreidimensionaler Geometrie vorgestellt. Die Besonderheit hierbei liegt in der planaren Herstellung der Antenne im Druckverfahren und der anschließenden dreidimensionalen Aufrichtung. Die entwickelten Antennen sind direkt in kommerzielle und industrielle Anwendung überführbar. / This doctoral thesis focuses on research and development in the field of novel, optimized and printed antenna structures for UHF and SHF-RFID applications in challenging dielectric and metallic environments. These antenna structures have a high level of functionality, the manufacturing costs are low and they can easily be integrated. At the beginning of this work, based on wave equations it had been deduced that the propagation of electromagnetic waves in different media is dependent on the two material parameters permeability and permittivity. Based on this knowledge and further application- and manufacturing-specific parameters (resonance frequency, radiation characteristics, impedance, properties of the object which is to be identified (form, geometry, permeability and permittivity) and manufacturing-specific properties (substrate, material and printed layer thereof)), dipole antenna designs for different dielectric environments (air, paper, glass or wood) were designed, investigated with the help of a simulation tool, manufactured employing screen and gravure printing technologies and characterized in an anechoic chamber. The employed printing technologies are very dynamic processes which depend on various process parameters. In order to improve the functionality of printed antenna structures, several dependencies between the printing processes and the achieved antenna properties have been investigated. Summed up, it can be stated that next to all manufacturing-specific dependencies, the antenna design itself is the most significant factor influencing the achievable antenna properties. Next to carrying out research on dielectric antennas in the near field, finding novel antenna concepts for the realization of highly functional UHF-RFID-transponder-antennas for the application on metallic objects was also part of this investigation. Important to account for is that the metallic objects influence the propagation of electromagnetic waves. In order to efficiently use this physical property of the reflection of electromagnetic waves, novel UHF-reflector-antenna configurations have been designed. Afterwards, its antenna-polarizations behavior was investigated in several simulations before the antenna was manufactured employing screen printing technology and characterized in an anechoic chamber. The developed antenna-configuration showed impressive RFID-reading distances up to 8.1 m (with a RFID-reader transmitting power of 1 W ERP) and compared to the state-of-the-art technology (reading distance approx. 5 m). Therefore this technology enhances the reading performance (distance) by approximately 60 %. In order to improve the communication quality of future RFID-systems, also novel, multi-directional 3D-RFID transponder antenna structures with a resonance frequency of 5.8 GHz were designed. Because of the increased resonance frequency compared to already existing UHF-RFID systems, the usage of a broader-band RFID-frequency range is possible (5.725 GHz – 5.875 GHz (150 MHz) instead of just several kHz). This allows identifying significantly more objects (> 100) in parallel. The three-dimensional layout of two antenna parts vertical to each other allows a directional (not omni-directional) radiation characteristic outside the enclosed volume of space. Because of this, the influence of dielectric materials (for instance content of product packages) on the functionality of the antenna could be significantly reduced. Also, it was shown that the designed 3D-antenna structure could easily be integrated directly on the interior of for instance product packages employing screen printing technology. After folding/erecting the product package, the antenna receives its three dimensional shape and its verified improved performance.

Dieser Beitrag ist der Vibrationsfördertechnik zuzuordnen und befasst sich speziell mit dem Prinzip der Gleitförderung bei nichtharmonischer Beschleunigung in horizontaler Ebene. Es werden Zusammenhänge zwischen der Bewegung des Förderorgans und der Berechnung der resultierenden Fördergeschwindigkeit vorgestellt. Anhand der maximalen Fördergeschwindigkeit und der Effizienz einer Bewegungsform werden schließlich optimale Bewegungsgesetze abgeleitet. / This work is assigned to vibratory conveyor engineering and is dealing with the operation principle of sliding conveying by non-harmonical accelaration along horizontal plane surfaces. The relations between motion of the conveyor organ and calculation of the resulting conveying velocity are explained in this paper. Finally, optimal motion laws regarding a high efficiency of the motion patterns are derived from the maximum conveying velocity.

In the past decades, numerous single-molecule techniques have been developed to investigate individual bio-molecules and cellular machines. While a lot is known about the structure, localization, and interaction partners of such molecules, much less is known about their mechanical properties. To investigate the weak, non-covalent interactions that give rise to the mechanics of and between proteins, an instrument capable of resolving sub-nanometer displacements and piconewton forces is necessary. One of the most prominent biophysical tool with such capabilities is an optical tweezers. Optical tweezers is a non-invasive all-optical technique in which typically a dielectric microsphere is held by a tightly focused laser beam. This microsphere acts like a microscopic, three-dimensional spring and is used as a handle to study the biological molecule of interest. By interferometric detection methods, the resolution of optical tweezers can be in the picometer range on millisecond time scales. However, on a time scale of seconds—at which many biological reactions take place—instrumental noise such as thermal drift often limits the resolution to a few nanometers. Such a resolution is insufficient to resolve, for example, the ångstrom-level, stepwise translocation of DNA-binding enzymes corresponding to distances between single basepairs of their substrate. To reduce drift and noise, differential measurements, feedback-based drift stabilization techniques, and ‘levitated’ experiments have been developed. Such methods have the drawback of complicated and expensive experimental equipment often coupled to a reduced throughput of experiments due to a complex and serial assembly of the molecular components of the experiments. We developed a high-resolution optical tweezers apparatus capable of resolving distances on the ångstrom-level over a time range of milliseconds to 10s of seconds in surface-coupled assays. Surface-coupled assays allow for a higher throughput because the molecular components are assembled in a parallel fashion on many probes. The high resolution was a collective result of a number of simple, easy-to-implement, and cost-efficient noise reduction solutions. In particular, we reduced thermal drift by implementing a temperature feedback system with millikelvin precision—a convenient solution for biological experiments since it minimizes drift in addition to enabling the control and stabilization of the experiment’s temperature. Furthermore, we found that expanding the laser beam to a size smaller than the objective’s exit pupil optimized the amount of laser power utilized in generating the trapping forces. With lower powers, biological samples are less susceptible to photo-damage or, vice versa, with the same laser power, higher trapping forces can be achieved. With motorized and automated procedures, our instrument is optimized for high-resolution, high-throughput surface-coupled experiments probing the mechanics of individual biomolecules. In the future, the combination of this setup with single-molecule fluorescence, super-resolution microscopy or torque detection will open up new possibilities for investigating the nanomechanics of biomolecules.

Evaluations of the Higher Education Sector are receiving increased attention, due to the rising expenditures and the absence of efficiency enhancing market pressure. To what extent universities are able to eliminate inefficiency is a question that has only partially been answered. This paper argues that heterogeneity among universities as well as persistent inefficiency hinder the institutions to achieve full efficiency - at least in the short run. Two standard and one novel specification of the Stochastic Frontier Analysis are applied to a new, comprehensive set of panel data to show how the standard efficiency evaluation changes when both aspects are taken into account. It is the first time that the idea of persistent inefficiency is considered in the analysis of the German Higher Education Sector. The comparison reveals that the disregard of heterogeneity distorts the estimation results towards lower efficiency values. The newly introduced specification improves the accuracy of the heterogeneity assumption and exposes that inefficiency tends to be long term and persistent rather than short term and residual. This implies that increasing efficiency requires a comprehensive change of the university structure.

Im industriellen Bereich erfolgt die Energiebereitstellung auf thermischer, wie elektrischer Seite zunehmend mittels hocheffizienter Kraft-Wärme-Koppelung (KWK). Konventionelle KWK-Anlagen ohne Dampfturbine (DT) verfügen technologiebedingt über eine relativ starre, lastabhängige Stromkennzahl. Damit kann eine wärme- und/oder stromseitige Volatilität schlecht kompensiert werden ohne die jeweils gekoppelte Größe zu beeinflussen. Der integrierte Gas-Dampf-Prozess (GiD-Prozess) zeichnet sich aufgrund der halboffenen Prozessgestaltung durch eine anlagentechnisch sehr einfache Bauweise und damit gegenüber einer klassischen Gas und Dampf-Prozess (GuD)-Anlage geringeren Investitions- und Wartungskosten aus. Die vorliegende Arbeit befasst sich mit der Analyse des lastabhängigen Betriebsverhaltens des integrierter Gas-Dampf-Prozess (GiD)-Prozesses unter Berücksichtigung der Teillastfähigkeit und erreichbarer Lastgradienten. Hierzu werden umfangreiche Versuchsfahrten des Versuchskraftwerks am Zentrum für Energietechnik (ZET) der TU Dresden dargelegt und analysiert. Die Versuche werden durch transiente Systemsimulationen auf Komponentenebene der Kraftwerksanlage nachvollzogen und Erkenntnisse zu dem Effekt der Lastgradienten auf heißgasbeaufschlagte Bauteile gewonnen.

Diese Arbeit untersucht Inferenz für Streuungsparameter bedingter Gaußprozesse anhand diskreter verrauschter Beobachtungen in einem Hochfrequenz-Setting. Unser Ziel dabei ist es, eine asymptotische Charakterisierung von effizienter Schätzung in einem allgemeine Gaußschen Rahmen zu finden. Für ein parametrisches Fundamentalmodell wird ein Hájek-Le Cam-Faltungssatz hergeleitet, welcher eine exakte asymptotische untere Schranke für Schätzmethoden liefert. Dazu passende obere Schranken werden konstruiert und die Bedeutung des Satzes wird verdeutlicht anhand zahlreicher Beispiele wie der (fraktionellen) Brownschen Bewegung, dem Ornstein-Uhlenbeck-Prozess oder integrierten Prozessen. Die Herleitung der Effizienzresultate basiert auf asymptotischen Äquivalenzen und kann für verschiedene Verallgemeinerungen des parametrischen Fundamentalmodells verwendet werden. Als eine solche Erweiterung betrachten wir das Schätzen der quadrierten Kovariation eines stetigen Martingals anhand verrauschter asynchroner Beobachtungen, welches ein fundamentales Schätzproblem in der Öknometrie ist. Für dieses Modell erhalten wir einen semi-parametrischen Faltungssatz, welcher bisherige Resultate im Sinne von Multidimensionalität, Asynchronität und Annahmen verallgemeinert. Basierend auf den vorhergehenden Herleitungen entwickeln wir einen statistischen Test für den Hurst-Parameter einer fraktionellen Brownschen Bewegung. Ein Score- und ein Likelihood-Quotienten-Test werden implementiert sowie analysiert und erste empirische Eindrücke vermittelt. / This work studies inference on scaling parameters of a conditionally Gaussian process under discrete noisy observations in a high-frequency regime. Our aim is to find an asymptotic characterisation of efficient estimation for a general Gaussian framework. For a parametric basic case model a Hájek-Le Cam convolution theorem is derived, yielding an exact asymptotic lower bound for estimators. Matching upper bounds are constructed and the importance of the theorem is illustrated by various examples of interest such as the (fractional) Brownian motion, the Ornstein-Uhlenbeck process or integrated processes. The derivation of the efficiency result is based on asymptotic equivalences and can be employed for several generalisations of the parametric basic case model. As such an extension we consider estimation of the quadratic covariation of a continuous martingale from noisy asynchronous observations, which is a fundamental estimation problem in econometrics. For this model, a semi-parametric convolution theorem is obtained which generalises existing results in terms of multidimensionality, asynchronicity and assumptions. Based on the previous derivations, we develop statistical tests on the Hurst parameter of a fractional Brownian motion. A score test and a likelihood ratio type test are implemented as well as analysed and first empirical impressions are given.

In theoretical computer science, various notions of efficiency are used for algorithms. The most commonly used notion is worst-case efficiency, which is defined by requiring polynomial worst-case running time. Another commonly used notion is average-case efficiency for random inputs, which is roughly defined as having polynomial expected running time with respect to the random inputs. Depending on the actual notion of efficiency one uses, the approximability of a combinatorial optimization problem can be very different. In this dissertation, the approximability of three classical combinatorial optimization problems, namely Independent Set, Coloring, and Shortest Common Superstring, is investigated for different notions of efficiency. For the three problems, approximation algorithms are given, which guarantee approximation ratios that are unachievable by worst-case efficient algorithms under reasonable complexity-theoretic assumptions. The algorithms achieve polynomial expected running time for different models of random inputs. On the one hand, classical average-case analyses are performed, using totally random input models as the source of random inputs. On the other hand, probabilistic analyses are performed, using semi-random input models inspired by the so called smoothed analysis of algorithms. Finally, the expected performance of well known greedy algorithms for random inputs from the considered models is investigated. Also, the expected behavior of some properties of the random inputs themselves is considered.

Vibrationsförderer gehören zur Gruppe der Stetigförderer und werden branchenübergreifend sowohl zur Schütt- als auch zur Stückgutförderung eingesetzt. Das Förderorgan eines Vibrationsförderers versetzt ein darauf befindliches Fördergut mittels kleiner periodischer Vibrationen in eine gerichtete Bewegung. Diese Gutbewegung wird anhand der mittleren Fördergeschwindigkeit charakterisiert und stellt eine wichtige Dimensionierungsgröße dar. Gleichzeitig dient die mittlere Fördergeschwindigkeit, neben einem ruhigen Laufverhalten des Gutes, als Beurteilungskriterium der Güte eines Vibrationsförderers. Die fortschreitende Entwicklung bringt immer komplexere Geräte mit nahezu beliebigen zweidimensional ausgeformten Vibrationsbewegungen hervor, wobei diese gelegentlich auch unbeabsichtigt generiert werden. Die aus solchen Bewegungsformen resultierenden Fördergutreaktionen lassen sich mit bislang vorhandenen Berechnungsmodellen nicht beschreiben. Die vorliegende Arbeit untersucht die Einflüsse zweidimensionaler Bewegungsformen eines Förderorgans auf die daraus resultierende Gutbewegung bei Vibrationsförderern. Diesbezüglich wurde ein numerisches Berechnungsmodell entwickelt, experimentell verifiziert und mit der nach dem Stand der Technik geläufigen Berechnungsvorschrift verglichen. Das entwickelte Modell diente weiterhin als Basis theoretischer Untersuchungen, insbesondere für 2D-Bewegungsformen 1. Ordnung. Aus den Untersuchungsergebnissen konnte schließlich eine für den Anwender praktikable und erweiterte Berechnungsvorschrift abgeleitet werden. / Vibratory conveyors belong to the group of continuous conveyors and are inter-divisionally deployed for the conveyance of bulk and piece goods. The conveyor organ of a vibratory conveyor moves thereupon placed conveyed goods by means of small periodical vibrations in a directed movement. This movement of the goods is characterized via medium conveying speed and describes an important rating dimension. Next to a stable running performance of the goods, the medium conveying speed acts at the same time as an assessment criterion for the quality of a vibratory conveyor. The progressing development produces more and more complex devices with almost any two-dimensionally formed vibrating movements, which are, however, sometimes generated unintentionally. Reactions of conveying goods resulting from such movement patterns cannot be described with the so far existing analytical models. The dissertation at hand analyses the influence of two-dimensional movement patterns of a conveyor organ on the resulting movement of the goods when using vibratory conveyors. Concerning this matter, a numerical analytical model was developed, experimentally verified and, according to the calculation rule, compared to the state of the technology. The developed model provided furthermore a basis for theoretical research, here especially for 2D movement patterns of first order. Finally, a practicable and extended calculation rule could be deduced from the research results.

Evaluations of the Higher Education Sector are receiving increased attention, due to the rising expenditures and the absence of efficiency enhancing market pressure. To what extent universities are able to eliminate inefficiency is a question that has only partially been answered. This paper argues that heterogeneity among universities as well as persistent inefficiency hinder the institutions to achieve full efficiency - at least in the short run. Two standard and one novel specification of the Stochastic Frontier Analysis are applied to a new, comprehensive set of panel data to show how the standard efficiency evaluation changes when both aspects are taken into account. It is the first time that the idea of persistent inefficiency is considered in the analysis of the German Higher Education Sector. The comparison reveals that the disregard of heterogeneity distorts the estimation results towards lower efficiency values. The newly introduced specification improves the accuracy of the heterogeneity assumption and exposes that inefficiency tends to be long term and persistent rather than short term and residual. This implies that increasing efficiency requires a comprehensive change of the university structure.

This work focusses on the advances of organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) for large area display and solid-state-lighting applications. OLED technology has matured over the past two decades, aided by the rapid advances in development of the novel material and device concepts. State-of-the-art OLEDs reach internal efficiencies of 100% and device lifetimes acceptable for commercial display applications. However, further improvements in the blue emitter stability and the device performance at the high brightness are essential for OLED technology to secure its place in the lighting market. As the current passing through the device increases, a rapid decrease in OLED efficiency, so-called efficiency roll-off, takes place, which hinders the use of OLEDs wherever high brightness is required. In addition, white OLEDs comprising multiple emitter molecules suffer from the emission colour change as the operating conditions are varied or as the devices age. Despite side-by-side structuring of the monochrome OLEDs could in principle circumvent most of bespoke issues, the limitations imposed by the shadow mask technique, employed to structure vacuum deposited films, renders such approach impractical for fabrication of the devices on a large scale. In order to address these issues, photolithographic patterning of OLEDs is implemented. Highly efficient state-of-the-art devices are successfully structured down to tens of micrometers with the aid of orthogonal lithographic processing. The latter is shown to be a promising alternative for the shadow mask method in order to fabricate the full-colour RGB displays and solid-state-lighting panels. Photo-patterned devices exhibit a virtually identical performance to their shadow mask counterparts on a large scale. The high performance is replicated in the microscale OLEDs by a careful selection of functional layer sequence based on the investigation of the morphological stability and solubility of vacuum deposited films. Microstructured OLEDs, fabricated in several different configurations, are investigated and compared to their large area counterparts in order to account for the observed differences in charge transport, heat management and exciton recombination in bespoke devices. The role of the Joule heat leading to the quenching of the emissive exciton states in working devices is discussed. Structuring the active OLED area down to 20 micrometer is shown to improve the thermal dissipation in such devices, thus enabling the suppression of the efficiency roll-off at high brightness in white-emitting electroluminescent devices based on side-by-side patterned OLEDs.:List of Publications 1 1 Introduction 5 2 Organic Semiconductors 9 2.1 Molecular Bonding 9 2.1.1 Intramolecular Interactions 10 2.1.2 Intermolecular Interactions 17 2.2 Optical Properties of Organic Semiconductors 23 2.2.1 Excited State Dynamics 26 2.3 Energy Transfer in Organic Solids 27 2.3.1 Förster Energy Transfer 29 2.3.2 Dexter Energy Transfer 30 2.4 Charge Transport Phenomena 31 2.4.1 Polarization and Energetic Disorder 31 2.4.2 Charge Transport Models 33 3 Electromagnetic Field Propagation in Layered Media 35 3.1 Maxwell's Equations 35 3.1.1 Wave Character of Electromagnetic Field 37 3.1.2 Energy of Electromagnetic Field 38 3.1.3 Boundary Conditions of Electromagnetic Fields 39 3.2 Reflection and Refraction of Plane Waves 40 3.2.1 Total Internal Reflection 43 3.3 Guided Optical Waves 44 3.3.1 Modes of Planar Waveguide 45 3.3.2 Multilayer Waveguides 49 3.3.3 Mode Coupling 53 3.4 EM Field in Presence of Charges 55 3.4.1 Volume Plasmons 58 3.4.2 Surface Plasmon Polaritons 58 3.4.3 Localized Plasmons 62 4 Organic Light-Emitting Diodes 65 4.1 Principle of Operation 65 4.1.1 Electroluminescence Efficiency 66 4.1.2 Charge Injection and Transport 66 4.1.3 Radiative Efficiency 68 4.1.4 Excited State Formation 69 4.1.5 Organic Emitters 71 4.1.6 Light Extraction 73 4.1.7 Efficiency Loss Mechanisms 74 4.2 Applications of OLEDs 76 4.2.1 Information Displays 76 4.2.2 Solid-State Lighting 77 4.2.3 OLED Based Sensors 77 4.3 OLED Structuring 79 4.3.1 Shadow Mask Patterning 79 4.3.2 Serial Printing 80 4.3.3 Unconventional Patterning Techniques 80 4.3.4 Photolithographic Patterning of OLEDs 81 4.3.5 Orthogonal Processing of Organic Semiconductors 83 5 Materials and Methods 87 5.1 Organic Functional Materials . 87 5.1.1 Hole Injection/Transport Layers 87 5.1.2 Electron Blocking Materials 88 5.1.3 Hole Blockers and Electron Transport Materials 88 5.1.4 Emitter Systems 90 5.1.5 Substrate and Electrodes 90 5.2 Device Fabrication 92 5.2.1 Vacuum Deposition 92 5.2.2 Photolithographic Structuring 92 5.3 Measurements 94 5.3.1 OLED Characterisation 94 5.3.2 Optical and Morphological Inspection 95 5.3.3 Calcium Conductance Test 95 5.3.4 Time-of-flight Spectroscopy 96 6 Orthogonal Patterning of Organic Semiconductor Films and Devices 97 6.1 Patterned Organic Films 97 6.2 Patterned Alq3 Based OLEDs 100 6.2.1 Direct Emitter Patterning 100 6.2.2 Cathode as Protection Layer 102 6.2.3 Impact of O2 Plasma Treatment 104 6.3 Summary 107 7 Photolithographic Structuring of State-of-the-Art p-i-n OLEDs for Full-Colour RGB Displays 109 7.1 Studied OLED Structures 109 7.2 HFE Compatibility Study 110 7.2.1 HFE Immersion Study 110 7.2.2 LDI-TOF-MS Analysis 112 7.3 Large area OLEDs 114 7.4 Microscale Devices 118 7.5 Bilayer Processing on p-i-n OLEDs 122 7.6 Summary 126 8 White Light from Photo-structured OLED Arrays 129 8.1 Fabrication of Micro-OLED Array 129 8.1.1 Structuring Procedure 130 8.1.2 Optical Device Optimisation 130 8.1.3 Choice of Hole Blocking and Electron Transport Layers 134 8.2 Performance of Microstructured Devices 143 8.2.1 Colour Temperature Tuning 143 8.2.2 Compatibility with Photo-patterning 145 8.2.3 Colour Stability 150 8.3 Summary 154 9 Efficiency Roll-off and Emission Colour of Microstructured OLEDs 155 9.1 Photolithographic Control of the Subunit Dimension 155 9.2 Control of the Emission Colour 156 9.3 Suppression of Efficiency Roll-off in Microscale Devices 157 9.4 Thermal Management in OLEDs 159 9.5 Modelling Impact of Joule Heat on Roll-off Characteristics 162 9.6 Summary 164 10 Conclusions and Outlook 165 10.1 Conclusions 165 10.2 Outlook 167 List of Abbreviations 171 List of Figures 173 List of Tables 177 Acknowledgements 179 Bibliography 181 / Die vorliegende Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit den neusten Errungenschaften von organischen Licht-emittierenden Dioden (OLEDs) für großflächige Beleuchtungs- und Displayanwendungen. Die OLED-Technologie hat sich in den letzten zwei Jahrzehnten, begünstigt von neuartigen Material- und Bauteilkonzepten, weit entwickelt. Im aktuellen Stand der Technik erreichen OLEDs sowohl interne Effizienzen von 100% als auch Lebensdauern die für die kommerzielle Nutzung in Displays ausreichend sind. Nichtsdestotrotz sind weitere Verbesserungen für die Stabilität blauer Emitter und die Leistungsfähigkeit bei hohen Leuchtstärken erforderlich, damit die OLED Technologie ihren Platz auf dem Markt behaupten kann. Mit steigender Stromstärke, die durch ein solches Bauteil fließt, sinkt die Effizienz rapide (der sogenannte Effizienz-Roll-Off), was die Nutzung von OLEDs verhindert, wann immer hohe Leuchtstärken erforderlich sind. Zusätzlich verändern weiße OLEDs ihre Farbkomposition durch die unterschiedliche Alterung der unterschiedlichen Emittermoleküle oder veränderte Einsatzbedingungen. Obwohl die laterale Strukturierung nebeneinander aufgebrachter, monochromer OLEDs diese Probleme umgehen könnte, ist diese Herangehensweise durch die aktuelle Schattenmasken-Technologie limitiert, welche zur Strukturierung vakuumprozessierter Dünnschichten eingesetzt wird, und somit unpraktikabel für die Massenproduktion. Um diese Problemstellungen zu umgehen, wird hier die photolithographische Strukturierung von OLEDs angewendet. Mithilfe der orthogonalen Lithographie können hocheffiziente Bauteile damit erfolgreich auf Größenordnungen von 10 Mikrometer strukturiert werden. Dies zeigt, dass die orthogonale Prozessierung eine vielversprechende Alternative für die Schattenmasken-Technologie darstellt und für die Herstellung von RGB-Displays und Beleuchtungspanelen geeignet ist. Photostrukturierte Bauteile zeigen dabei eine nahezu identische Leistungsfähigkeit zu solchen, die großffächig mittels Schattenmasken hergestellt wurden. Diese hohe Leistungsfähigkeit kann hierbei durch eine sorgfältige Auswahl der einzelnen funktionellen Schichten erreicht werden, welche auf Untersuchung von morphologischer Stabilität und Löslichkeit dieser Schichten basiert. Mikrostrukturierte OLEDs in verschiedenen Konfigurationen werden mit ihren großflächigen Gegenstücken verglichen, um beobachtete Abweichungen im Ladungstransport, der Wärmeverteilung, sowie der Exzitonenrekombination zu erklären. Die Rolle der Joule'schen Wärme, die zur Auslöschung der emittierenden Exzitonenzustände führt, wird hier diskutiert. Die thermische Dissipation kann dabei verbessert werden, indem die aktive Fläche der OLED auf 20 Mikrometer herunterstrukturiert wird. Folglich kann der Effizienz-Roll-Off bei hohen Leuchtstärken in lateral strukturierten weißen elektrolumineszenten Bauteilen unterdrückt werden.:List of Publications 1 1 Introduction 5 2 Organic Semiconductors 9 2.1 Molecular Bonding 9 2.1.1 Intramolecular Interactions 10 2.1.2 Intermolecular Interactions 17 2.2 Optical Properties of Organic Semiconductors 23 2.2.1 Excited State Dynamics 26 2.3 Energy Transfer in Organic Solids 27 2.3.1 Förster Energy Transfer 29 2.3.2 Dexter Energy Transfer 30 2.4 Charge Transport Phenomena 31 2.4.1 Polarization and Energetic Disorder 31 2.4.2 Charge Transport Models 33 3 Electromagnetic Field Propagation in Layered Media 35 3.1 Maxwell's Equations 35 3.1.1 Wave Character of Electromagnetic Field 37 3.1.2 Energy of Electromagnetic Field 38 3.1.3 Boundary Conditions of Electromagnetic Fields 39 3.2 Reflection and Refraction of Plane Waves 40 3.2.1 Total Internal Reflection 43 3.3 Guided Optical Waves 44 3.3.1 Modes of Planar Waveguide 45 3.3.2 Multilayer Waveguides 49 3.3.3 Mode Coupling 53 3.4 EM Field in Presence of Charges 55 3.4.1 Volume Plasmons 58 3.4.2 Surface Plasmon Polaritons 58 3.4.3 Localized Plasmons 62 4 Organic Light-Emitting Diodes 65 4.1 Principle of Operation 65 4.1.1 Electroluminescence Efficiency 66 4.1.2 Charge Injection and Transport 66 4.1.3 Radiative Efficiency 68 4.1.4 Excited State Formation 69 4.1.5 Organic Emitters 71 4.1.6 Light Extraction 73 4.1.7 Efficiency Loss Mechanisms 74 4.2 Applications of OLEDs 76 4.2.1 Information Displays 76 4.2.2 Solid-State Lighting 77 4.2.3 OLED Based Sensors 77 4.3 OLED Structuring 79 4.3.1 Shadow Mask Patterning 79 4.3.2 Serial Printing 80 4.3.3 Unconventional Patterning Techniques 80 4.3.4 Photolithographic Patterning of OLEDs 81 4.3.5 Orthogonal Processing of Organic Semiconductors 83 5 Materials and Methods 87 5.1 Organic Functional Materials . 87 5.1.1 Hole Injection/Transport Layers 87 5.1.2 Electron Blocking Materials 88 5.1.3 Hole Blockers and Electron Transport Materials 88 5.1.4 Emitter Systems 90 5.1.5 Substrate and Electrodes 90 5.2 Device Fabrication 92 5.2.1 Vacuum Deposition 92 5.2.2 Photolithographic Structuring 92 5.3 Measurements 94 5.3.1 OLED Characterisation 94 5.3.2 Optical and Morphological Inspection 95 5.3.3 Calcium Conductance Test 95 5.3.4 Time-of-flight Spectroscopy 96 6 Orthogonal Patterning of Organic Semiconductor Films and Devices 97 6.1 Patterned Organic Films 97 6.2 Patterned Alq3 Based OLEDs 100 6.2.1 Direct Emitter Patterning 100 6.2.2 Cathode as Protection Layer 102 6.2.3 Impact of O2 Plasma Treatment 104 6.3 Summary 107 7 Photolithographic Structuring of State-of-the-Art p-i-n OLEDs for Full-Colour RGB Displays 109 7.1 Studied OLED Structures 109 7.2 HFE Compatibility Study 110 7.2.1 HFE Immersion Study 110 7.2.2 LDI-TOF-MS Analysis 112 7.3 Large area OLEDs 114 7.4 Microscale Devices 118 7.5 Bilayer Processing on p-i-n OLEDs 122 7.6 Summary 126 8 White Light from Photo-structured OLED Arrays 129 8.1 Fabrication of Micro-OLED Array 129 8.1.1 Structuring Procedure 130 8.1.2 Optical Device Optimisation 130 8.1.3 Choice of Hole Blocking and Electron Transport Layers 134 8.2 Performance of Microstructured Devices 143 8.2.1 Colour Temperature Tuning 143 8.2.2 Compatibility with Photo-patterning 145 8.2.3 Colour Stability 150 8.3 Summary 154 9 Efficiency Roll-off and Emission Colour of Microstructured OLEDs 155 9.1 Photolithographic Control of the Subunit Dimension 155 9.2 Control of the Emission Colour 156 9.3 Suppression of Efficiency Roll-off in Microscale Devices 157 9.4 Thermal Management in OLEDs 159 9.5 Modelling Impact of Joule Heat on Roll-off Characteristics 162 9.6 Summary 164 10 Conclusions and Outlook 165 10.1 Conclusions 165 10.2 Outlook 167 List of Abbreviations 171 List of Figures 173 List of Tables 177 Acknowledgements 179 Bibliography 181