The phenomenon of Virtual Power Plant (VPP) has gained increased attention in many parts of the world in recent years. In 2022 the European Union, in response to the rising energy prices as well as the ongoing Russian invasion of Ukraine, set a goal of speeding up the process of creating a digital energy system (European Commission, 2022, p. 20). VPP is the/a solution to the problem, and the EU is set to start its deployment of a common European energy data space no later than 2024 (European Commission, 2022, p. 3).  Previous academic research on VPP has been conducted on the technical aspects of the phenomenon and the adoption of VPP has not been approached from a consumer standpoint. We therefore identified a research gap, since, to the best of our knowledge, no qualitative or quantitative research has been conducted in the area of acceptance of VPP by individuals or households. We could see that there is a need for this type of research due to the goals set by the European Union, and the lack of current research. To fulfill the purpose of our study, we draw on the literatures on supplier switching in homogenous markets, innovation adoption, and technology acceptance to develop a conceptual framework and further empirically extend it via a mixed-method approach. The qualitative component of the study consists of three online on-on-one interviews, conducted with the help of a discussion guide. The interviewees selected were considered to be appropriate participants, suited for our study. The interviews gave us a deeper understanding of how VPP came across to the Swedish consumer, as well as how it was perceived by them. The quantitative study was done by the means of a survey of 75 respondents, enabling us to conduct a set of linear regressions in order to test our hypotheses.  Through our mixed-method study, we were able to develop an integrative framework, showcasing factors related to Swedish consumers’ intention to partake in VPP. We could conclude that Swedish consumers see value in VPP, and that there is curiosity related to the topic which indicates that there is an interest to explore and partake in VPP. We further discuss a range of recommendations to policy-makers and energy providers, as well as the potential contributions of VPP to the two important social aspects: sustainability and energy security.

The recent increase of electric cars adoption will inuence the electricity demand in the distributionnetworks which risks to be higher than the maximum power available in the grid, if not well planned. Forthis reason, it is on the DSOs and TSOs's interest to plan carefully coordinated charging of a bulk of EVsas well as assess the possibility of EVs acting as energy storages with the Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) or Vehicleto-Building (V2B) capability. When parked and plugged into the electric grid, EVs will absorb energy andstore it, being also able to deliver electricity back to the grid/building (V2G/B system).This can be anoptimized process, performed by an aggregator, gathering multiple EVs that discharge the battery into thegrid at peak time and charge when there is low demand i.e. overnight and o-peak hours.Numerous studies have investigated the possibility of aggregating multiple EVs and optimizing theircharging and discharging schedules for peak load reduction or energy arbitrage with participation in theelectricity market. However, no study was found for optimizing a shared eet of EVs with daily reservationsfor dierent users trying to perform V2B. In this study an optimization modelling algorithm (mixed integerlinear problem - MILP) that manages the possible reservations of the shared eet of EVs, coordinates thecharging and discharging schedules, and provides V2B (Vehicle-to-Building), with the objective of minimizingenergy costs and accounting with battery ageing has been developed. A case study with real data for abuilding is carried out modelling dierent number of EVs for two dierent days in year 2017, one in Marchand other in June.Results show that the prots are higher for all cases when introducing V2B as compared to a no optimizationscenario: V2B with battery degradation (50 ore/kWh) has decreased daily variable electricity costsbetween 54 and 59% in March and 60 and 63% for June when compared without smart charging. Integrationof battery degradation cost in V2B applications is necessary and inuences signicantly the chargingand discharging strategies adopted by EV and nally the total daily costs: The total daily cost increaseby maximal 10% for the day in March and 13% for the day in June when comparing the scenario that hasstationary battery and uses only-charging model for EVs with the scenario applying V2B mode consideringa degradation cost of 80 ore/kWh. / Ö kningen av antalet elbilar kommer att påverka lasten i elnätet som riskerar att bli högre än kapacitetom det inte är väl planerat. Därför är det i elnätsföretags intresse att samordna laddningen av de flesta elbilarna samt att utvärdera möjligheterna att använda elbilar som energilager gentemot elnätet (Vehicleto-Grid,V2G) eller byggnader (Vehicle-to-Building, V2B). Vid parkering och anslutning till elnätet kommer elbilar att ladda energi och lagra den, samtidigt de kan leverera el tillbaka till elnätet eller byggnaden (V2G/V2B). Detta kan vara en optimerad process som utförs av en aggregator genom att ladda flera elbilar i låglasttimmar och ladda ur dem under höglasttimmar.Många studier har undersökt möjligheten att aggregera flera elbilar och optimera laddningsoch urladdningsplaner för topplastreduktion eller energiarbitrage på elmarknaden. Ingen studie har dock hittats för att optimera en gemensam flotta av elbilar med dagliga reservationer för olika användare som försöker utföra V2B. Denna studie har utvecklat en optimeringsmodell (blandad heltalsprogrammering MILP) som hanterar möjliga reservationer av en flotta av elbilar, koordinerar laddning och urladdning planering, och utför V2B för att minimera energikostnader med hänsyn till batteriets åldrande. En fallstudie för en byggnad genomfördes modellering av olika antal elbilar för två dagar 2017, en i mars och andra i juni.Resultaten visar att vinsten är högre i samtliga fall då man introducerar V2B jämfört med scenario utan optimering: V2B med batteriladdningskostnad 50 öre/kWh minskade dagliga rörliga elkostnader mellan 54% och 59% i mars och mellan 60% och 63% i juni jämfört med utan smart laddning. Att inkludera batteriladdningskostnaden i V2B-applikationer är nödvändigt och har en signifikant inverkan på laddningsstrategierna och de totala kostnaderna: De totala dagliga kostnaderna ökar med upp till 10% i mars och upp till 13% i juni då man jämför scenariot att bara ladda elbilar och ha stationärt batteri med scenariot V2B med hänsyntill batteriladdningskostnad 80 öre/kWh.

Sweden has recently increased its efforts to reach net-zero greenhouse gas emission by 2045.The purpose of this study is to assess the feasibility for Bollnäs municipality to meet itsenvironmental goals through the conversion of its current fleet to a Natural Gas Vehicle basedfleet. A CO2 emission-based comparison has been used to estimate from an environmentalstandpoint the viability of biogas as the main fuel for the Bollnäs municipality fleet. Theresults have shown how a compressed natural gas (CNG) based fleet would lower by morethan five times the estimated CO2 emission of the current fleet. The viability of a biogas fleethas been proven and further results have shown how if the CNG fuel was produced from100% renewable resources the environmental impact would be even lower. The results havealso shown how Electric Vehicles (EV) and Hydrogenated Vegetable Oil (HVO) from 100%renewable resources could be viable environmental alternatives but it requires furtherinvestigation from an infrastructure and economic standpoint. / <p>2021-06-04</p>

Development of electric vehicles is motivated by global concerns over the need for environmental protection. In addition to its zero-emission characteristics, an electric propulsion system enables high performance torque control that may be used to maximize vehicle performance obtained from energy-efficient, low rolling resistance tires typically associated with degraded road-holding ability. A simultaneous plant/controller optimization is performed on an electric vehicle traction control system with respect to conflicting energy use and performance objectives. Due to system nonlinearities, an iterative simulation-based optimization approach is proposed using a system model and a genetic algorithm (GA) to guide search space exploration. The system model consists of: a drive cycle with a constant driver torque request and a step change in coefficient of friction, a single-wheel longitudinal vehicle model, a tire model described using the Magic Formula and a constant rolling resistance, and an adhesion gradient fuzzy logic traction controller. Optimization is defined in terms of the all at once variable selection of: either a performance oriented or low rolling resistance tire, the shape of a fuzzy logic controller membership function, and a set of fuzzy logic controller rule base conclusions. A mixed encoding, multi-chromosomal GA is implemented to represent the variables, respectively, as a binary string, a real-valued number, and a novel rule base encoding based on the definition of a partially ordered set (poset) by delta inclusion. Simultaneous optimization results indicate that, under straight-line acceleration and unless energy concerns are completely neglected, low rolling resistance tires should be incorporated in a traction control system design since the energy saving benefits outweigh the associated degradation in road-holding ability. The results also indicate that the proposed novel encoding enables the efficient representation of a fix-sized fuzzy logic rule base within a GA.

Development of electric vehicles is motivated by global concerns over the need for environmental protection. In addition to its zero-emission characteristics, an electric propulsion system enables high performance torque control that may be used to maximize vehicle performance obtained from energy-efficient, low rolling resistance tires typically associated with degraded road-holding ability. A simultaneous plant/controller optimization is performed on an electric vehicle traction control system with respect to conflicting energy use and performance objectives. Due to system nonlinearities, an iterative simulation-based optimization approach is proposed using a system model and a genetic algorithm (GA) to guide search space exploration. The system model consists of: a drive cycle with a constant driver torque request and a step change in coefficient of friction, a single-wheel longitudinal vehicle model, a tire model described using the Magic Formula and a constant rolling resistance, and an adhesion gradient fuzzy logic traction controller. Optimization is defined in terms of the all at once variable selection of: either a performance oriented or low rolling resistance tire, the shape of a fuzzy logic controller membership function, and a set of fuzzy logic controller rule base conclusions. A mixed encoding, multi-chromosomal GA is implemented to represent the variables, respectively, as a binary string, a real-valued number, and a novel rule base encoding based on the definition of a partially ordered set (poset) by delta inclusion. Simultaneous optimization results indicate that, under straight-line acceleration and unless energy concerns are completely neglected, low rolling resistance tires should be incorporated in a traction control system design since the energy saving benefits outweigh the associated degradation in road-holding ability. The results also indicate that the proposed novel encoding enables the efficient representation of a fix-sized fuzzy logic rule base within a GA.

With the increasing demand for fast, cheaper, and efficient power converters come the need for a single-stage power factor correction (PFC) converter. Various single-stage PFC converter proposed in the literature has the drawback of high DC bus voltage at the input side and together with the shift to wide bandgap switches like GaN drives the converter cost higher. However, an interleaved topology with high-frequency isolation was proposed in this research work due to the drastic reduction in the DC bus voltage and extremely low input current ripple thereby making the need for an EMI filter circuit optional.   Meanwhile, this research work focuses on adapting the proposed topology for a high voltage low current application (EV charger - 400V, 7KW) and low voltage high current application (telecom power supply - 58V,  58A) owing to cost benefits. However, all single-stage PFC are faced with the drawback of second-order (100Hz) output harmonic ripple. Therefore, the design and simulation presented a huge peak to peak ripple of about 50V/3A and 26V/26A for the EV charger and telecom power supply case, respectively. This created the need for the design of a ripple cancellation circuit as the research required a peak to peak ripple of 8V and 200mV for the EV - charger and telecom power supply, respectively.   A novel output passive ripple cancellation technique was developed for the EV charger case due to the ease it offers in terms of control, circuit complexity and extremely low THDi when compared with the active cancellation approach. The ripple circuit reduced the 50V ripple to 431mV with the use of a total of 2.2mF capacitance at the output stage.   Despite designing the passive technique, an active ripple cancellation circuit was designed using a buck converter circuit for the telecom power supply. The active approach was chosen because the passive has a slow response and incurs more loss at a high current level. Adding the active ripple cancellation circuit led to a quasi-single stage LLC PFC converter topology. A novel duty-ratio feedforward control was added to synchronize the PFC control of the input side with the buck topology ripple cancellation circuit. The addition of the ripple circuit with the feedforward control offered a peak to peak ripple of 6.7mV and a reduced resonant inductor current by half.   After analysis, an extremely low THDi of 0.47%, PF of 99.99% and a peak efficiency of 97.1% was obtained for the EV charger case. The telecom power supply offered a THDi of 2.3%, PF of 99.96% with a peak efficiency of 95%.

The research in this report seeks to develop a highly flexible geometry station for joining futureBody-in-White (BiW) assemblies. The goal is to eliminate the need for a complete reconstructionof a production line during integration of new car bodies in a contemporary production.Today's BiW production is performed in sequential lines, where joining equipment is arranged ina specific order for each model geometry. An increasing model portfolio forces manufacturers todevelop production systems that allow an integration of new models. Electrified alternatives ofexisting models are now developed and put into production. These models have similarappearance as conventional models, but with a completely different principle of driveline due tothe propulsion. This means that new interfaces and platforms have to be developed and mustnow be integrated into a current production. Today's production lines are not prepared forcoming changes, and current stations can only handle a limited number of variants. Integration ofnew geometries into a contemporary production line is not sufficiently efficient from aproduction perspective. The goal of the future is to make such an integration possible.Initially, current and future production scenarios were studied. Based on this, four types ofproduction scenarios, which a highly flexible geometry station can be integrated into, were set up.An integration can take place in different ways depending on how a highly flexible geometrystation is compounded, therefore, different cases were created and compared in a case study.Internal and external benchmarking of production systems were made to compare the availablesolutions for increasing stations flexibility in a BiW production.As reference for the project, a concept for a highly flexible geometry station has been developedand is therefore described initially before an additional depth has been realized. The furtherconceptualization of a highly flexible geometry in this report is presented in the form of amorphological composition of technologies that can increase a station's flexibility, as well asvisualization of a station principles through layouts and cycle time charts. The result of theanalysis generated several concepts that hold different degrees of capacity, footprint andflexibility. The focus was to achieve a high level of flexibility for integration of new models, withnew geometries, in a current production. The conclusion was that the highly flexible geometrystation can, in a contemporary production, produce independently in low volumes. Alternatively,produce higher volumes when it is integrated as a complement in a novel, not yet implemented,production concept. / Forskningen i denna rapport syftar till att utveckla en högflexibel geometristation för fogning avkommande Body-in-White-karosser (BiW). Målet är att eliminera behovet av en fullständigrekonstruktion av en produktionslinje under integrering av nya bilar i en samtida produktion.Dagens BiW-produktion sker i sekventiella liner, där fogningsutrustning är arrangerad i enspecifik ordning för respektive modellgeometri. Ett ökande antal modellalternativ drivertillverkare till att utveckla produktionskoncept som möjliggör integration av nya modeller.Elektrificerande alternativ till befintliga modeller utvecklas kontinuerligt. Dessa modeller ärutseendemässigt lika de konventionella modellerna, men med en helt annan princip för drivlina.Det innebär att nya gränssnitt och plattformar har tagits fram och måste nu integreras i ennuvarande produktion. Dagens produktionslinjer är inte förberedda för kommande förändringaroch nuvarande geometristationer kan endast hantera ett begränsat antal karosstyper. Integrationav nya karosstyper i en befintlig produktionslinje är inte är tillräckligt effektivt ur ettproduktionsperspektiv. Framtidens mål är att göra en sådan integration möjlig.Inledningsvis studerades nuvarande- och kommande produktionsscenarion. Utifrån det beskrevsfyra produktionstyper, vilket en högflexibel geometristation kan komma att integreras i. Enintegration kan ske på olika vis beroende på hur en högflexibel geometristation tillämpas, därförjämfördes olika fall av det i en Case-studie. En intern och extern benchmarking avproduktionssystem gjordes för att jämföra de lösningar som finns för att öka flexibiliteten i enBiW-produktion.Som referensunderlag till projektet har ett koncept för en högflexibel geometristation tagits framoch är beskrivet inledningsvis innan en ytterligare fördjupning har realiserats.Konceptualiseringen av en högflexibel geometristation i denna rapport är presenterad i form aven morfologisk sammansättning av teknologier som kan öka en stations flexibilitet, samtvisualisering av en principiell station genom layouter och cykeltidsdiagram. Resultatet av analysengenererade flera koncept som innehar olika grad av kapacitet, fabriksyta och flexibilitet. Fokus varatt uppnå en hög flexibilitetsnivå för integration av nya modeller, med nya geometrier, i ennuvarande produktion. Slutsatsen var att den högflexibla geometristationen kan, i en nutidaproduktion, producera självständigt i låga volymer. Alternativt producera högre volymer då denintegreras som ett komplement till ett ännu inte implementerat nytt produktionskoncept. / Die Forschung in diesem Bericht zielt darauf ab, eine hochflexible Geometrie-Station für das Fügen zukünftiger Rohbau-Baugruppen zu entwickeln. Das Ziel ist es, die Notwendigkeit einer vollständigen Rekonstruktion einer Produktionslinie während der Integration neuer Karosserien in einer modernen Produktion zu beseitigen. Die heutige Rohbau Produktion wird in sequenziellen Linien durchgeführt, wobei die einzelnen Fügeverfahren in einer bestimmten Reihenfolge, angepasst an die jeweilige Modellgeometrie, angeordnet sind. Ein zunehmendes Modellportfolio zwingt die Automobilhersteller zur Entwicklung von Produktionssystemen, die eine Integration neuer Modelle ermöglichen. Elektrifizierte Varianten bestehender Fahrzeugmodelle werden nun entwickelt und in Produktion gebracht. Diese Modelle haben ein ähnliches Erscheinungsbild wie herkömmliche Modelle, jedoch mit einem stark veränderten Antriebskonzept. Dies bedeutet, dass neue Schnittstellen und Plattformen entwickelt wurden und nun in eine aktuelle Produktion integriert werden müssen. Heutige Produktionslinien sind nicht auf kommende Änderungen vorbereitet und können nur eine begrenzte Anzahl von Varianten handhaben. Die Integration neuer Geometrien in eine moderne Produktionslinie ist aus Produktionssicht nicht effizient, aber soll in Zukunft das Ziel sein. Zunächst wurden aktuelle und zukünftige Produktionsszenarien untersucht. Darauf aufbauend wurden vier Arten von Produktionsszenarien erarbeitet, in die eine hochflexible Geometriestation integriert werden kann. Je nach Aufbau der Geostation kann eine Integration auf unterschiedliche Art und Weise erfolgen. Daher wurden in einer Fallstudie unterschiedliche Fälle erstellt und verglichen. Ein Benchmarking mit internen und externen Produktionssystemen wurde durchgeführt, um eine größtmöglichste Flexibilität der Stationen in einer Rohbau Produktion zu erzielen. Als Referenz für das Projekt wurde ein Konzept für eine hochflexible Geometriestation entwickelt und im Rahmen der Thesis dokumentiert, bevor eine zusätzliche Tiefe realisiert wurde. Die weitere Konzeptionierung einer hochflexiblen Geometrie-Station wird in Form einer morphologischen Zusammensetzung von Technologien präsentiert. Dieser kann die Flexibilität einer Station erhöhen und zudem die Visualisierung von Stationsprinzipien, beispielsweise durch Layouts oder Zykluszeitdiagramme, fördern. Das Ergebnis der Analyse erzeugte mehrere vi Konzepte, die unterschiedliche Grade an Kapazität, Grundfläche und Flexibilität beinhalteten. Der Fokus lag auf einer hohen Flexibilität bei der Integration neuer Modelle mit neuen Geometrien in einer aktuellen Produktion. Die Schlussfolgerung war, dass die hochflexible Geometriestation in einer zeitgemäßen Produktion in kleinen Stückzahlen produzieren kann. Alternativ ist die Geo-Station auch als Bestandteil eines noch umzusetzenden Produktionskonzepts integrierbar.

The Swedish energy sector is undergoing transformational changes. Along with a rapid growth of renewables and a shift towards electromobility, the transformation is expected to bring challenges to the power system in terms of grid instability and capacity deficiency. Integrating distributed renewable electricity production into the electric vehicle (EV) charging infrastructure is a promising solution to overcome those challenges. The feasibility of implementing such a charging infrastructure system in northern Sweden is however uncertain, as the solar resources are scarce in the long winter period. This study aims to maximise the value of a solar powered EV charging station, placed in a workplace environment in Umeå. An integrated system model of the charging station is developed, comprising separate models of a solar PV system, a battery energy storage system (BESS), the workplace EV fleet and the building Växthuset, onto which the charging station will be installed. Three scenarios are developed to study the charging station’s system performance under different EV charging strategies and BESS dispatch strategies. Two additional scenarios are developed to study the potential grid services that the charging station can provide in the winter period. A techno-economic assessment is performed on each scenario’s simulation results, to measure their effect on the charging station’s value. It involves analysing the charging station’s profitability and how well the BESS is utilised by the end of a ten-year project period. The charging station’s grid impact is further assessed by its self-consumption of solar power, peak power demand and the grid energy exchange. The assessed charging station values indicate that the overall grid impact was reduced with dynamic EV charging strategies and that the BESS capacity utilisation was strongly influenced by its dispatch strategy. The charging station further implied a net capital loss under the explored scenarios, even while the dynamic charging strategies brought by a slightly increased economic value. Moreover, the studied winter scenarios showed a great potential for the charging station to provide ancillary services to the local distribution grid while maintaining an efficient BESS capacity utilisation. The winter period’s peak power demand was significantly reduced by optimising the BESS operation to shift peaks in the building’s load profile, and peaks caused by the additional EV charging demand and the EV heaters, to off-peak hours. On this basis, future research is recommended for improved simulations of the charging station operation and to study additional value-added features that the solar driven charging station can bring. / Sveriges energisystem genomgår en omfattande omställning. Förändringar i form av en ökad andel förnybar elproduktion och elektrifieringen av transportsektorn förväntas medföra stora utmaningar för elsystemets nätstabilitet och överföringskapacitet. Att integrera in distribuerad, förnybar elproduktion som en del av laddinfrastrukturen för elfordon ställer sig som en lovande lösning för att möta de väntande utmaningarna. Möjligheterna att tillämpa en sådan lösning i norra Sverige är däremot mindre självklara, då solresurserna är knappa under vintertid. Det här examensarbetet syftar till att maximera nyttan av en soldriven laddstation för elbilar, placerad på ett arbetsplatsområde i Umeå. En integrerad energisystemmodell av laddstationen har skapats, bestående av systemmodeller av solpaneler, ett batterienergilager, arbetsplatsens elbilsflotta samt byggnaden Växthuset, som laddstationen ska anslutas till. Tre scenarier har utformats för att undersöka hur laddstationens prestanda förändras beroende på olika laddstrategier för elbilarna och batterienergilagrets styrning. Ytterligare två scenarier har utvecklats för att utforska möjliga nättjänster som laddstationen kan bistå med under vintertid. Laddstationens värde har vidare bedömts utifrån systemets prestanda i de olika scenarierna. Bedömningen grundar sig på laddstationens lönsamhet och hur välutnyttjat batterienergilagret är efter en kalkylperiod på 10 år, samt på specifika påverkansfaktorer på elnätet. Faktorerna omfattar konsumtionen av egenproducerad el, toppeffektuttaget och nätöverföringarna orsakade av laddstationen. Från värderingen av laddstationen framgår det att de dynamiska laddstrategierna ledde till en, överlag, minskad påverkan på elnätet samt att styrningen av batterienergilagret hade stor inverkan på dess utnyttjandegrad. Laddstationens nettonuvärde förblev negativt i de tre scenarierna, även om de dynamiska laddstrategierna, ökade dess ekonomiska värde till en viss del. Vidare tyder simuleringen av vinterscenarierna på att det finns en stor potential för laddstationen att erbjuda tjänster för lokalnätet och samtidigt nyttiggöra sig av batterienergilagret. Växthusets toppeffektuttag reducerades märkbart genom att optimera batteristyrningen till att flytta effekttoppar orsakade av Växthusets ellastkurva eller elbilarnas laddning och uppvärmning, till de timmar där lasten var lägre. Med detta i bakgrund föreslås vidare studier som fokuserar på den integrerade energisystemmodellen för att förbättra simuleringarna, samt att undersöka möjligheterna till att erbjuda fler nättjänster, som ökar laddstationens mervärde.

<p>Online retail sales and grocery/food orders have been breaking records every year. As a result, third-party delivery companies have found an opportunity to get their share from the growing transportation network. Electric vehicles (EVs) are becoming a preferable choice for such large delivery systems due to their environmental benefits. However, EVs have limited-service ranges; therefore, intra-route facilities are needed for EVs to stay operational. These facilities offer charging stations for EVs and storage areas for requests, e.g., food and packages. In this dissertation, we propose a novel <em>Pickup and Delivery Problem</em> (PDP) with EVs and transfers. There are requests to be picked up and delivered. EVs leave their origin depot, serve requests, and return to their destination depot. Unlike the generic PDP, intra-route facilities allow EVs to exchange requests. Thus, a request can be transported by more than one vehicle. In this dissertation, three new problems are introduced, and the following research questions are investigated: 1) "How valuable is to include intra-route facilities and allow transfers in a pickup and delivery network with EVs?", 2) "What is the cost of locating intra-route facilities randomly rather than finding the best locations while creating the routes for EVs?", and 3) "How much can drones improve the delivery speed in a pickup and delivery network with EVs and transfers?". A <em>Mixed-integer Linear Programming</em> (MILP) model and a <em>Simulated Annealing</em> (SA) algorithm are developed and compared with each other to answer the first question. For the second question, a MILP model is formulated; however, due to unreasonable computational runtimes, a SA algorithm and an <em>Adaptive Large Neighborhood Search</em> (ALNS) algorithm are proposed. Finally, a MILP model is developed for the hybrid-fleet problem. The overall results highlight that intra-route facilities shorten the total traveled distance in the PDP network by allowing exchanges and recharging.</p>