In this thesis, a physics-based single particle modeling is presented to analyze a proposed direct coupled hybrid energy storage modules using lithium-ion battery and ultracapacitor. Firstly, a state of the art for the energy storage system in the electrified vehicles are summarized. Several energy storage elements including lead-acid battery, nickel-metal hydride battery, lithium-ion battery, ultracapacitor, and lithium-ion capacitor are reviewed. Requirements of the energy storage systems in electric, hybrid electric, and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles are generalized. Typical hybrid energy storage system topologies are also reviewed. Moreover, these energy storage elements and hybrid energy storage system topologies are compared to the requirements of the energy storage systems in terms of specific power and specific energy. Secondly, the performance of different battery balancing topologies, including line shunting, ring shunting, synchronous flyback, multi-winding, and dissipative shunting are analyzed based on a linear programming methodology. As a traction battery in an electric or plug-in electric vehicle, high voltage lithium-ion packs are typically configured in a modular fashion, therefore, the analysis considers the balancing topologies at module level and cell level and focuses on minimum balancing time, minimum plug-in charge time, minimum energy loss, and component counts of every balancing topology for the entire battery pack. Thirdly, different modeling techniques for the lithium-ion battery and ultracapacitor are presented. One of the main contributions of this thesis is the development of a physics-based single particle modeling embedded with a solid-electrolyte interface growth model for a lithium-ion battery in battery management system. This development considers the numerical solution of diffusion equation, cell level quantities, parametrization method, effects of number of shells in a spherical particle, SOC-SOH estimation algorithms, and aging effects. The accuracy of the modeling is validated by experimental results of a Panasonic NCR18650A lithium-ion battery cell. Fourthly, the physics-based modeling is applied to analyze the performance of a proposed direct coupled hybrid energy storage module topology based on the Panasonic NCR18650A lithium-ion battery and Maxwell BCAP0350 ultracapacitor. There are many ways to directly connect battery cells and ultracapacitor cells in a module which would influence the performance of the module. The results show that a module has 9 cells in a battery string and 14 cells in an ultracapacitor string can obtain the highest power capability and utilize the most of the energy in an ultracapacitor. More ultracapacitor strings connected in parallel would increase the power density but reduce the energy density. Moreover, the simulation and experimental results indicate that the direct coupled hybrid modules can extend the operating range and slow the capacity fade of lithium-ion battery. An SOC-SOH estimation algorithm for the hybrid module is also developed based on the physics-based modeling. Finally, a pack design methodology is proposed to meet U.S. Advanced Battery Consortium LLC PHEV-40, power-assist, and 48V HEV performance targets for the battery packs or the proposed direct coupled topologies. In order to explore replacement tradeoffs between the battery and ultracapacitor, a case study of the direct coupled topologies is presented. From the case study, ultracapacitors enhance the power capability for short term pulse power and marginally reduce the cost of an entire energy storage system. Moreover, the hybrid module topologies can keep a relatively long all-electric range when the batteries degrade. / Dissertation / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

Die Untersuchung widmet sich der Frage nach der Existenz elektrischer und elektrifizierter Gitarren im Deutschen Reich bis zum Ende des Zweiten Weltkriegs. In Form einer umfangreichen Spurensuche evaluiert die Autorin die Rezeption US-amerikanischer Entwicklungen – wie etwa die Markteinführung der Ro-Pat-In/Electro String Modelle A‑25/A‑22 („Frying Pan“) im Herbst 1932 – im deutschsprachigen Raum und zeigt, dass die steigende Popularität moderner Gitarren im angloamerikanischen Kulturraum trotz der nationalsozialistischen Diktatur auch in der deutschen Tanz- und Jazzmusikszene Widerhall fand. Als eine der zentralen Fragestellungen wird dabei untersucht, inwiefern im Deutschen Reich im Allgemeinen und im sächsisch böhmischen Musikwinkel im Speziellen eine bloße Imitation amerikanischer Instrumente stattfand oder in welchem Maße Eigenentwicklungen vorgenommen wurden. Im Zuge der Untersuchung begutachtet die Autorin zudem zahlreiche neuralgische Aspekte des Themenkomplexes: Angefangen mit umfangreichen Vorbetrachtungen zur Entwicklung der modernen Plektrumgitarre in den Vereinigten Staaten und den einzelnen Stationen bis hin zur Serienproduktion elektrischer und elektrifizierter Modelle, widmet sie sich der Frage nach dem Einfluss nationalsozialistischer Kultur- und Musikpolitik auf das Instrument und dem Stellenwert transatlantischer Austauschprozesse bei der Verbreitung moderner Gitarren im Deutschen Reich. Weitere Pfade der Spurensuche führen anschließend von den im Deutschen Reich tätigen Gitarristen wie etwa Hans Korseck, Hans Belle und Stassi de Tomboulis über deutsche Firmen und Hersteller wie Wenzel Rossmeisl oder Eugen Schuster hin zur umfangreichen Untersuchung von im Bestand des Deutschen Patent- und Markenamts befindlichen Patentschriften von Oskar Vierling und anderen Pionieren elektrisch verstärkter Instrumente. In einem weiteren Kapitel werden zudem exemplarisch zwei wichtige Periodika der damaligen Zeit – die Zeitschrift für Instrumentenbau und das Fachmagazin Der Artist – herangezogen und systematisch nach Spuren elektrischer und elektrifizierter Instrumente durchsucht. Durch diese umfassende und breitangelegte Herangehensweise liefert die vorliegende Untersuchung eine wichtige Grundlage für ein bislang kaum erforschtes Themengebiet und ermöglicht es der Organologie, die Frage nach der Genese elektrischer und elektrifizierter Gitarren im Deutschen Reich gänzlich neu zu datieren. / This study is dedicated to the question of the existence of electric and electrified guitars in the German Reich until the end of the Second World War. In the form of an extensive search for traces, the author evaluates the reception of US developments in the German-speaking area – such as the market launch of the Ro Pat In/Electro String models A‑25/A‑22 (‘Frying Pan’) in the autumn of 1932. The thesis demonstrates that the increasing popularity of modern guitars in the Anglo-American cultural sphere found resonance in the German dance and jazz music scene despite the Nazi dictatorship. One of the central questions explored is the extent to which mere imitation of American instruments occurred in the German Reich in general and in the Saxon-Bohemian musical region in particular, or to what extent independent developments were made. In the course of the study, the author examines numerous crucial aspects of the subject: Starting with extensive considerations on the development of the modern plectrum guitar in the United States and the individual stages leading to the mass production of electric and electrified models, the thesis explores the impact of Nazi cultural and music policy on the instrument and the significance of transatlantic exchange processes in the dissemination of modern guitars in the German Reich. Subsequent paths of investigation lead from guitarists active in the German Reich, such as Hans Korseck, Hans Belle, and Stassi de Tomboulis, to German companies and manufacturers like Wenzel Rossmeisl or Eugen Schuster, culminating in the comprehensive examination of patents by Oskar Vierling and other pioneers of electrically amplified instruments in the holdings of the German Patent and Trademark Office. In another chapter, two important periodicals of that time – the Zeitschrift für Instrumentenbau and the specialized magazine Der Artist – are also used, systematically searched for traces of electric and electrified instruments. Through this comprehensive and broad approach, the present study provides an important foundation for a hitherto scarcely explored area and enables organology to entirely reconsider the question of the genesis of electric and electrified guitars in the German Reich.

Idag står transportsektorn för cirka 30 % av Sveriges totala koldioxidutsläpp. Elbilen ses som en hållbar lösning då den skulle minska utsläppen från Sveriges transportsektor. Hållbarhet handlar dock inte bara om koldioxidutsläpp. Syftet med projektet är därför att ge en kritisk bild av ett framtida elektrifierat samhälle med fokus på elbilen. Arbetet syftar också till att undersöka vad som krävs för att elektrifiera den svenska personbilsflottan och om detta skulle leda till ett mer hållbart samhälle. De metoder som använts är litteraturstudie, workshop och en modifierad version av två befintliga Backcasting-metoder. De huvudsakliga resultaten är att elektrifiering av personbilsflottan i Sverige, utan vidare åtgärder, leder till att koldioxidutsläppen minskar. Elbilen är också avgasfri vilket gör att även partiklar och skadliga ämnen från avgaserna minskar. Dock finns en risk att problem som giftutsläpp samt dåliga arbetsvillkor vid framtagning av råvaror till elbilsbatterier förvärras när efterfrågan på råvarorna ökar. För de problem och aspekter som inte blir bättre har redan ett antal åtgärder börjat vidtas för att göra personbilsflottan mer hållbar. Dock är det svårt att säga hur stor inverkan åtgärderna har på problemen och fler åtgärder behöver vidtas för att hela produktionskedjan ska bli hållbar. Slutsatsen som dras i arbetet är att elbilen i sig inte leder till ett hållbart samhälle men att om en kombination av fler åtgärder vidtas finns potential att elbilen kan bidra till ett mer hållbart samhälle. / Today, the transport sector accounts for approximately 30 % of Sweden's total CO2-emissions. The battery electric vehicle is seen as a sustainable solution as it would reduce emissions from Sweden’s transport sector. However, sustainability is not just about CO2-emissions. The aim of the project is therefore to give a critical picture of a future electrified society with focus on the battery electric vehicle. The work also aims to investigate what is required to electrify the Swedish passenger car fleet and whether this would lead to a more sustainable society. The methods used in the report are literature study, workshop and a modified version of two existing Backcasting methods. The main results are that electrification of the passenger car fleet in Sweden, without further action, leads to a reduction in CO2-emissions. The battery electric vehicle is also exhaust-free, which means that particles and harmful substances from the exhaust gases are also reduced. However, there is a risk that problems such as toxic emissions and poor working conditions in the production of raw materials for electric vehicle batteries will worsen as demand for raw materials increases.  For the problems and aspects that are not getting better, a number of measures have already begun to be taken to make the passenger car fleet more sustainable. However, it is difficult to say how much impact the measures have on the problems and more measures need to be taken to make the entire production chain sustainable. The conclusion drawn from the work is that the battery electric vehicle itself does not lead to a sustainable society, but if measures are taken, there is the potential that the battery electric vehicle can contribute to a more sustainable society.

We consider both a long-wave model and a first-order weighted-residual integral boundary layer (WIBL) model in the investigation of thin film flow down a topographical incline whilst under the effects of a normal electric field. The liquid is assumed to be a perfect dielectric, although is trivially extended to the case of a perfect conductor. The perfect dielectric case with no topography includes a simple modified electric Weber number which incorporates the relative electrical permittivity constant into itself. Linear stability analysis is carried out for both models, and critical Reynolds numbers which depend on the electric Weber number and the capillary number are produced. Regions of stability, convective instability and absolute instability are then determined for both models in terms of our electric Weber number and Reynolds number parameters in the case of no topography. Time-dependent simulations are produced to corroborate the aforementioned regions and investigate the effect of normal electric field strength in addition to sinusoidal and rectangular topographical amplitude on our system for various domain sizes. For the time-dependent simulations we find strong agreement with the linear stability analysis, and the results suggest that the inclusion of a normal electric field may have some stabilising properties in the long-wave model which are absent in the case of a flat wall, for which the electric field is always linearly destabilising. This stabilising effect is not observed for the same parameters in the WIBL model with a sinusoidal wall, although a similar effect is noticed in the WIBL model with a rectangular wall. We also investigate the simultaneous effect of domain size, wall amplitude and electric field strength on the critical Reynolds numbers for both models, and find that increasing the electric field strength can make large-amplitude sinusoidal topography stabilising rather than destabilising for the long-wave model. Continuation curves of steady solutions and bifurcation diagrams are also produced, and comparisons between the two models are made for various parameter values, which show excellent agreement with the literature. Subharmonic branches and time-periodic solutions are additionally included, similarly showing very good agreement with the literature.

This thesis explores the possibility of using an optimal control scheme called Model Predictive Control (MPC), to control climatization systems for electric vehicles. Some components of electric vehicles, for example the batteries and power electronics, are sensitive to temperature and for this reason it is important that their temperature is well regulated. Furthermore, like all vehicles, the cab also needs to be heated and cooled. One of the weaknesses of electric vehicles is their range, for this reason it is important that the temperature control is energy efficient. Once the range of electric vehicles is increased the down sides compared to traditional combustion engine vehicles decrease, which could lead to an increase in the usage of electric vehicles. This could in turn lead to a decrease of greenhouse gas emission in the transportation sector. With the help of MPC it is possible for the controller to take more factors into consideration when controlling the system than just temperature and in this thesis the power consumption and noise are also taken into consideration. A simple model where parts of the climate system’s circuits were seen as point masses was developed, with nonlinear heat transfers occurring between them, which in turn were controlled by actuators such as fans, pumps and valves. The model was created using Simulink and MATLAB, and the MPC toolbox was used to develop nonlinear MPC controllers to control the climate system. A standard nonlinear MPC, a nonlinear MPC with custom cost functions and a PI controller where all developed and compared in simulations of a cooling scenario. The controllers were designed to control the temperatures of the battery, power electronics and the cab of an electric vehicle. The results of the thesis indicate that MPC could reduce power consumption for the climate control system, it was however not possible to draw any final conclusions as the PI controller that the MPC controllers were compared to was not well optimized for the system. The MPC controllers could benefit from further work, most importantly by applying a more sophisticated tuning method to the controller weights. What was certain was that it is possible to apply this type of centralized controller to very complex systems and achieve robustness without external logic. Even with the controller keeping track of six different temperatures and controlling 15 actuators, the control loop runs much faster than real time on a modern computer which shows promise with regard to implementing it on an embedded system.

No description available.

The aim of the thesis was to deepen the knowledge of sustainability aspects in the field of transportation for the ongoing digital development of autonomous and electrical freight trucks toward the year 2030 in the Swedish context. To achieve the above aim, three objectives were formulated. The first objective was to identify critical factors for the envisioned digital and electrical development, the second objective was to create and design three future scenarios for the year 2030, and the final objective was to apply the scenarios to several stakeholders. The critical factors were identified via the analysis of conducted interviews with several stakeholders. Based on these findings, three scenarios were created, which then were evaluated by several focusgroup interviews and ordinary interviews conducted with additional relevant stakeholders. In the evaluation, radar charts were used to clarify the stakeholders’ views and to assess different factors within each and every scenario. The factors that were evaluated with the radar charts were the drivers' situation, cooperation, investments, competitiveness, capacity, and energy consumption. The obtained results show that all three sustainability aspects have a significant impact on the future and envisioned development of the transportation industry. The outcomes of these objectives were then synthesized into relevant aspects and some formulated recommendations focusing on their role and relevance from a sustainability perspective. The list of recommendations is addressed to Trafikverket, providing the authority with future directions for advancing the ongoing development of autonomous and electric freight trucks. To conclude, the results from the thesis can assist stakeholders to increase sustainability and public welfare in the further development of autonomous and electric freight trucks in Sweden.

We have come a long way in the pursuit of reducing our carbon footprint from our way of living, bycontinuously development of batteries and charging infrastructure for electric vehicles to decrease thedemand for fossil fuels, improving the overall energy efficiency and to increase awareness of the problemto the population. One of the industries, that during the last decades has undergone vast improvements,is the development of the airplane engines due to increased emission regulations, for the aviationindustry, and to reduce the costs of air travel. Despite tighter regulations, global impact from travellingby air is increasing due to the explosive increase in number of travels and travellers. In order to copewith the situation, it is of course necessary to further develop fuel and emission effective airplanes, butalso to study the whole chain of emission sources correlated to the air transport industry. So, whilewaiting for improved airplanes there are well known emission effective technologies that can beimplemented already today – implement electric vehicles as support vehicles at airports.Today, and throughout history, most of the focus of air travel has been on the airplane itself. This thesis,that was carried out at KTH Royal Institute of Technology during late spring and autumn 2018, didinstead study the support vehicles used in airports. In this thesis, a generic economic model wasdeveloped in order to estimate the costs involved when replacing traditionally vehicles to suggestedelectrically propelled alternatives. To test and support the development of an economic model, a casestudy has been carried out at Stockholm Arlanda Airport. This case study included a field study to thementioned airport, and in combination with interviews with former employees from one of the groundhandling companies that are currently active in the airport. Raw data was collected over the equipmentand vehicles currently in use. This data was used to describe the vehicles purpose, requirements and toensure that the alternative electric vehicles proposed would offer at least the same performance as thetraditional vehicles. The developed generic economic model was modulated with five stages thatrepresented a selection of input parameters. The collected data became a result in itself and was used asinput to three concurrent theses.The results from the five stages presents the costs during an investment period of between of one tofifteen years. One of the most significant result could be seen from Stage V. This stage showed that thecombined cost to replace all vehicles currently used, with either all new diesel vehicles or electricalternative vehicles, are lower for electric vehicles than for diesel vehicles. Another significant resultcould be seen from the investigation of Stage IV, Stage IV-B, were the model was modulated to representthe case of replacing a vehicle. The results showed that the Letter and Cargo procedures, that travel thefarthest and has the highest fuel consumption of the investigated vehicles, had negative costs throughthe whole investment period. This means that the expenses will always be lower when these vehicles arereplaced. The model was validated through a sensitivity analysis, performed on the discount rates,depreciation rates and as well as costs for battery replacement during the depreciation period. / Vi har kommit långt i vår strävan att minska vårt koldioxidavtryck genom vårat sätt att leva, genom attkontinuerligt utveckla batterier och laddningsinfrastruktur för elfordon med syftet att minskaefterfrågan på fossila bränslen, förbättra den totala energieffektiviteten och öka befolkningensmedvetenhet om problemet. En av de branscher, som under de senaste decennierna har genomgått storaförbättringar, är utvecklingen av flygplansmotorer och regler för flygplan. Men eftersom antaletflygresenärer fortsätter att öka årligen krävs ytterligare arbete för att förbättra den totala effektivitetenoch minska det negativa globala avtrycket från flygresor. Medan väntan på att morgondagens flygplanska utvecklas så finns det teknik som redan kan appliceras idag – elfordon.I dag, och genom historien, har det mesta av all fokus för flygresor varit på flygplanen själva. Dettaexamensarbete, som genomfördes på KTH, Kungliga Tekniska Högskolan, under den senare delen avvåren och hösten 2018, utredde istället de fordon som omger ett flygplan, under den tid flygplanet stårstilla på en flygplats. Under denna uppsats utvecklades en generisk ekonomiskmodell, med syftet attestimera kostnaderna att ersätta och använda elfordon istället för de nuvarande fordonen. För attutveckla den ekonomiska modellen genomfördes en fallstudie på Stockholm Arlanda Airport.Fallstudien innehöll en fältundersökning till den nämnda flygplatsen, och i kombination med intervjuermed tidigare anställda från ett av de marktjänstföretag som är verksamma på flygplatsen, insamladesrådata om vilken utrustning och fordon som vid tillfället användes. Denna data användes för att beskrivafordonens syfte, vilka krav som ställs på fordonen. Detta var för att säkerställa att det valda elfordonetkunde utföra uppgiften. Den utvecklade generiska ekonomiska modellen modulerades med fem steg,som representerade vilka indataparametrar som bör väljas. De insamlade uppgifterna blev ett resultat isig och användes som indata till tre samtidiga avhandlingar.Den generiska modellen resultat presenterade kostnaderna från de fem stegen under en varierandeinvesteringsperiod på ett till femton år. Ett av de viktigaste resultaten var från Steg V, som visade attden sammanlagda kostnaden för att ersätta alla de fordon som för närvarande används, med antingenalla nya dieselfordon eller elektriska alternativa fordon, är lägre för elfordon än för dieselfordon. Detandra betydande resultatet kommer från undersökningen av Steg IV, Steg IV-B. I Steg IV-B moduleradesmodellen i syfte att representera scenariot då ett fordon ska ersättas, där Letter och Cargo procedurernavar de som färdades längst och även har den högsta bränsleförbrukningen utav de undersökta fordonen,hade en negativ kostnad under hela investeringslängden. Detta betyder att kostnaderna alltid är lägre,om fordonet ersätts. Modellen har validerats med hjälp utav en känslighetsanalys som utfördes pådiskonteringsräntan, avskrivningssatsen och kostnader för ersättningsbatterier.

No description available.

<p dir="ltr">The industry's interest in electrified powertrain-equipped vehicles has increased due to environmental and economic reasons. Electrified powertrains, in general, produce lower sound and vibration level than those equipped with internal combustion engines, making noise and vibration (N&V) from other non-engine powertrain components more perceptible. One such N&V type that arouses concern to both vehicle manufacturers and passengers is gear growl, but the signal characteristics of gear growl noise and vibration and the threshold of those characteristics that can be used to determine whether a gear growl requires attention are not yet well understood. This study focuses on developing a method to detect gear-growl based on the N\&V measurements and determining thresholds on various severities of gear-growl using supervised machine learning classification. In general, a machine learning classifier requires sufficient high-quality training data with strong information independence to ensure accurate classification performance. In industrial practices, acquiring high-quality vehicle NVH data is expensive in terms of finance, time, and effort. A physically informed data augmentation method is, thus, proposed to generate realistic powertrain NVH signals based on high-quality measurements which not only provides a larger training data set but also enriches the signal feature variations included in the data set. More specifically, this method extracts physical information such as angular speed, tonal amplitudes distribution, and broadband spectrum shape from the measurement data. Then, it recreates a synthetic signal that mimics the measurement data. The measured and simulated (via data augmentation) are transformed into feature matrix representation so that the N\&V signals can be used in the classification model training process. Features describing signal characteristics are studied, extracted, and selected. While the root-mean-square (RMS) of the vibration signal and spectral entropy were sufficient for detecting gear-growl with a test accuracy of 0.9828, the acoustic signal required more features due to background noise, making data linearly inseparable. The minimum Redundancy Maximum Relevance (mRMR) feature scoring method was used to assess the importance of acoustic signal features in classification. The five most important features based on the importance score were the angular acceleration of the driveshaft, the time derivative of RMS, the tone-to-noise ratio (TNR), the time derivative of the spectral spread of the tonal component of the acoustic signal, and the time derivative of the spectral spread of the original acoustic signal (before tonal and broadband separation). A supervised classification model is developed using a support vector machine from the extracted acoustic signal features. Data used in training and testing consists of steady-state vehicle operations of 25, 35, 45, and 55 mph, with two vehicles with two different powertrain specs: axles with 4.56 and 6.14 gear ratios. The dataset includes powertrains with swapped axles (four different configurations). Techniques such as cost weighting, median filter, and hyperparameter tuning are implemented to improve the classification performance where the model classifies if a segment in the signal represents a gear-growl event or no gear-growl event. The average accuracy of test data was 0.918. A multi-class classification model is further implemented to classify different severities based on preliminary subjective listening studies. Data augmentation using signal simulation showed improvement in binary classification applications. In this study, only gear-growl was used as a fault type. Still, data augmentation, feature extraction and selection, and classification methods can be generalized for NVH signal-based fault diagnosis applications. Further listening studies are suggested for improved classification of multi-class classification applications.</p>