Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Phonological opacity refers to rules/ processes that should apply in a given context but don‟t or apply even without a visible context. As such processes of underapplication and overapplication are found in the intermediate stages in-between the underlying and surface forms, the Classic Generative Theory (CGT) used to accommodate them without much ado in its rule orderings. Due to its extreme abstraction, new generative models come to light; one of them is the Optimality Theory. In this output-centered model originally just two levels of representation are accepted: the underlying and the surface ones, banning, therefore, intermediate levels between representation and production. Without such levels the theory was obliged to revisit its structure and operation methods so that to take account of opaque generalizations. However, the generative models are still unable to deal with all kinds of opacity with efficacy. This conclusion added to the fact that some scholars point out that there is no unified theory regarding phonological opacity not even in CGT makes us consider that such lack of transparency comes from the paradigm they are immersed into, the rationalism. We think that a change of paradigm would be fruitful to such issue. In this master‟s thesis we contemplate an emergentist view to opacity. During this thesis we come to the conclusion that phonological opacity can be dealt in a transparent manner. Multi-representational and Connectionist models, as they take into consideration a linguistic representation that is coherent with the neurosciences‟ findings, being it flexible, gradual and rich in phonetic details, do narrate the facts considered opaque. However, the first group of models due to being poor in regards of formal characterization becomes a weak model when compared to OT machinery, for example. In this light, we point that a pure connectionist OT (BONILHA, 2004) is an adequate model to handle opacity as it brings transparency to such issue and is also capable to formalize it. / Opacidade fonológica faz referências às regras ou processos que ou deveriam se aplicar em um contexto, mas não se aplicam, ou se aplicam mesmo sem um contexto aparente. Como esses processos de sub-aplicação e superaplicação de regras encontram-se nos estágios intermediários entre a subjacência e a superfície, a Teoria Gerativa Clássica (TCG) os acomodava sem muitos problemas em seus ordenamentos lineares de aplicação. Dada à grande abstração desse modelo, contudo, novos modelos gerativos vêm à tona; um deles é a Teoria da Otimidade (TO). Nesse modelo centrado no output, estão previstos, originalmente, apenas dois níveis de representação: a subjacência e a superfície, banindo, assim, estágios intermediários entre a representação linguística e a produção. Sem tais níveis, a teoria foi obrigada a repensar sua estrutura e funcionamento para tentar acomodar os casos opacos. No entanto, as reestruturações gerativas da TO não conseguem abarcar os fenômenos opacos da língua do homem com eficácia. Abordamos, nessa dissertação, os seguintes modelos gerativos para o tratamento da opacidade: Conjunção Local de Restrições; Teoria da Simpatia; LPM-TO; TO-Serial; e a TO com cadeias de candidatos. Abordamos, também, grande parcela das críticas presentes na literatura para cada um desses modelos. O fato de que a TO Standard e suas variantes não conseguem lidar com a opacidade em todas as suas faces, somado ao fato de que alguns autores apontam que a questão da opacidade não é unificada nem mesmo para a TGC, faz-nos pensar que essa obscuridade é oriunda do paradigma no qual tais modelos se inserem, o paradigma racionalista. Apostamos, então, que a mudança de paradigma seria frutífera para essa problemática. Nesta dissertação de mestrado, desta forma, abrimos mão de representações linguísticas cartesianas e de um mapeamento linguístico complexo e optamos por contemplar uma visão emergentista para a opacidade fonológica. Constatamos ao longo do trabalho que, nesse novo prisma, a opacidade pode ser acomodada de forma transparente. Modelos multirrepresentacionais e modelos conexionistas, ao abarcarem uma representação linguística coerente com os achados da neurociência, sendo esta flexível, gradual e rica de detalhamento fonético, conseguem narrar os fatos taxados como opacos. Contudo, a primeira sorte de modelos, ao carecer de formalização linguística, torna-se enfraquecida ao comparar-se com os mecanismos da TO, por exemplo. Nesta luz, propomos que a TO puramente conexionista, proposta por Bonilha (2004), seja um modelo adequado para acomodar a opacidade, tendo em vista que esse, além de conseguir trazer a transparência para a opacidade fonológica, também consegue, como atestamos, formalizar esses fenômenos linguísticos.

Notre recherche relève de la didactique des langues et s´inscrit dans la réflexion sur le plurilinguisme et l’acquisition des langues. Cette étude examine le processus d’activation partielle d’une langue autre que la langue cible pendant l’apprentissage des langues. Notre étude a été conduite dans deux établissements scolaires au Liban auprès des apprenantes des classes d’EB7, possédant un répertoire langagier plurilingue et ayant appris la diglossie arabe comme l’arabe (dans une version dialectale à la maison et standard à l’école) comme L1 et la langue française comme L2 et l’anglais comme L3. Lors de leur apprentissage et production du français L2 et de l’anglais L3, ils mettent en œuvre leur compétence plurilingue à travers l’activation partielle de leur potentiel plurilingue. Nous allons montrer quelles sont les processus cognitifs qui entrent en jeu lors de l’apprentissage de la nouvelle langue l’anglais L3. Ainsi que les facteurs qui conditionnent l’activation des langues connues par les apprenantes et à quel niveau linguistique se réalise le plus fréquemment l’activation partielle de la langue autre langue que la langue cible. / Our research comes from the didactics of languages and is part of the reflection on plurilingualism and the acquisition of languages. This study examines the process of partial activation of a language other than the target language during language learning.Our study was carried out in two schools in Lebanon with students of EB7 classes, having a multilingual language repertoire and having learned the Arabic diglossic language as L1 and the French language as L2 and English as L3.During their apprenticeship and production of the French L2 and the English L3, they apply their plurilingual competence through the partial activation of their plurilingual potential.We will show what are the cognitive processes that come into play when learning the new L3 English language. As well as the factors that condition the activation of the languages known by the learners, and at which linguistic level, is most frequently realised, the partial activation of the language other than the target language.

Située au carrefour de la didactique des langues et cultures et des sciences de l’éducation, la présente thèse porte sur l’appropriation, par les enseignants du cycle primaire au Bénin, de l’Initiative Francophone pour la Formation à Distance des Maîtres (IFADEM) en tant que dispositif de formation continue, en enseignement-apprentissage du FLES. L’objectif consiste à apporter des pistes pour améliorer l’appropriation du dispositif. A partir d’un modèle théorique d’appropriation, mis en place au regard d’une approche théorique transdisciplinaire et des spécificités du contexte d’étude, doublé d’une démarche de triangulation articulant enquêtes par questionnaires, par entretiens semi-directifs, d’auto-confrontation et par observations de pratiques effectives (situantes), nous nous sommes attachés à identifier les « indicateurs » d’appropriation ainsi que les « effets » du dispositif de formation sur les « pratiques pédagogiques effectives » des enseignants. Les théories holistiques de l’apprentissage des langues et spécifiquement l’éducation bilingue, le translanguaging et les théories sur l’enseignement-apprentissage de l’oral, ont constitué un socle pour l’analyse et la compréhension de la situation de recherche. La stabilité de nos analyses, offerte par le choix d’une méthodologie par triangulation, confirme que le parcours d’appropriation est déterminé par des relations d’interdépendance entre des facteurs situationnels (contextualisation), relationnels (relation avec les pairs) et individuels (self-system, réflexivité, recul épistémologique). Elle nous permet également d’aboutir aux conclusions suivantes : les enseignants bénéficiaires de la formation IFADEM font usage de la formation de façon instrumentale, et notamment des tâches qui leurs sont proposées pour améliorer l’enseignement oral du et en français afin de faire face au plurilinguisme. Ils sont exposés à plusieurs variations d’échelle, sources de contraintes et de tensions dans leurs activités pédagogiques, et ces dernières constituent un frein à l’appropriation du dispositif. L’analyse du processus d’appropriation au regard de l’émergentisme et des systèmes complexes d’activité permet d’aboutir au fait que les tensions générées par le déploiement du dispositif IFADEM font partie intégrante du processus de transformation de ce dernier. C’est l’absence de feed-back soutenu et institutionnalisé qui constitue une entrave à l’appropriation du dispositif. Afin de réagir positivement à ces écarts et de garantir l’appropriation du dispositif, le recours à la médiation ainsi qu’à une approche par tâches constituerait une voie intermédiaire. Elle permettrait notamment au dispositif de formation IFADEM, de s’inscrire dans une démarche co-évolutive, essentielle à l’équilibre des systèmes. C’est en tenant compte de l’ensemble de ces analyses et ajustements que cette recherche aboutit à l’élaboration d’un modèle d’appropriation. / This PhD thesis, situated at the crossroads of two domains – language and culture learning and teaching and learning sciences – deals with the way Beninese primary school teachers appropriated the IFADEM programme - « Initiative Francophone pour la Formation à Distance des Maîtres » (Francophone Initiative for Distance Education of Teachers), as a lifelong education environment in the teaching and learning of « French as Foreign/Second Language Learning ». Our purpose is to suggest new avenues aimed at improving the appropriation of this education environment. Our approach is based on a theoretical model of appropriation informed by a transdisciplinary theoretical stance and by the specifics of the context under study, but also on a triangulation method mixing questionnaire surveys, semi-directive interviews, self-confrontation interviews and observations of actual practises (situating). We try to identify the « indicators » of appropriation as well as the « effects » of the education environment on the « actual pedagogical practises » of teachers. Holistic theories of language learning – and more specifically bilingual education, translanguaging and the theories on oral skills development have given a foundation to the analysis and the comprehension of the research situation. The stability of our analyses, made possible by the choice of a triangulation methodology, confirms that the appropriation paths are determined by interdependency relations between factors of situational (contextualisation), relational (relationships with peers) and individual (self-system, reflexivity, epistemological distancing) natures. It also allows us to reach the following conclusions : the teachers who benefitted from the IFADEM training use it instrumentally and more specifically use the tasks they were proposed to improve the teaching of oral skills in and of French, in order to tackle the question of plurilingualism. These teachers are faced with several scale variations which engender constraints and tensions in their pedagogical activities, thus hindering the appropriation of the education environment. The analysis of the appropriation process in the light of emergentism and of complex systems of activity leads to the conclusion that the tensions generated by the implementation of the IFADEM progamm are part and parcel of its process of transformation. The absence of institutionalised and sustained feedback is the real hindrance to the appropriation of the education environment. In order to reduce these discrepancies in a positive way and to guarantee appropriation, turning to mediation and a task-based approach would constitute a middle way. In particular, it would allow the IFADEM environment to come within the scope of a co-evolutive approach, which is essential to the balance of systems. Taking into account all these analyses and adjustments helps this research to reach the elaboration of a model of appropriation.

Nesta tese, desenvolve-se um argumento explicativo da relação mente-corpo fundamentada na noção de mônada, ou substância simples, como elemento ontológico estruturante de um enfoque contemporâneo da mencionada relação. Na primeira parte da tese, de natureza crítica, analisam-se as teorias fisicistas contemporâneas da mencionada relação, a saber, a teoria de superveniência da mente, da emergência e da causação mental, com vistas a justificar a proposta de assunção de uma premissa dualista que visa, principalmente, propor, em contraste com o cenário epifenomenalista do fisicismo contemporâneo, uma ontologia da mente que seja compatível com as intuições realistas do senso comum e da psicológica popular sobre a força causal da mente no universo físico. Na segunda parte, de natureza positiva, propõe-se um argumento explicativo da relação mente-corpo partindo-se, para tanto, de uma assunção e duas premissas. A assunção afirma que a mente tem o mesmo importe ontológico da matéria física, sendo estes considerados como elementos composicionais, afirmação a qual se denomina dualismo elementar. No que se refere às premissas, propõe-se duas, a saber, a tese composicional holística, que afirma que a mente e a matéria são partes constitutivas de um todo chamado substância simples, e a tese composicional mereológica, que afirma que as substâncias simples ou mônadas compõem mereologicamente, por superveniência, a relação mente-corpo. Examinam-se também algumas objeções ao argumento monadista proposto. / This thesis offers an explanatory argument concerning the mind-body relation, an argument that is grounded on the notion of monad, or the simple substance, as an ontological element for proposing a contemporary approach to the mind-body relation. In the first part, a critique of the current physicalist theories of mind is given, namely, supervenience, emergence and mental causation, in order to justify the proposal of a dualist premiss which aims at an ontology of mind which satisfies the realistic intuitions of common sense and of folk psychology on the causal efficacy and relevance of the mind amid the physical, in opposition to the epiphenomenalist view of contemporary physicalist theories. In the second part, the positive one, we propose an explanatory argument for monadism about mind-body relations, based on an assumption and two premises. The assumption says that the mind has the same ontological import of the physical matter, and they, mind and matter, are considered to be elements entering the composition of psychophysical relations, an assumption called elementary dualism. Regarding the premises, we propose two, namely, the holistic compositional thesis, which asserts that mind and matter are parts entering the composition of true wholes called substances, and the mereological compositional thesis, which says that such simple substances compose, via supervenience, the mind-body relations. Some objections to the proposed monadist argument are examined and rejoindered as well.

Nesta tese, desenvolve-se um argumento explicativo da relação mente-corpo fundamentada na noção de mônada, ou substância simples, como elemento ontológico estruturante de um enfoque contemporâneo da mencionada relação. Na primeira parte da tese, de natureza crítica, analisam-se as teorias fisicistas contemporâneas da mencionada relação, a saber, a teoria de superveniência da mente, da emergência e da causação mental, com vistas a justificar a proposta de assunção de uma premissa dualista que visa, principalmente, propor, em contraste com o cenário epifenomenalista do fisicismo contemporâneo, uma ontologia da mente que seja compatível com as intuições realistas do senso comum e da psicológica popular sobre a força causal da mente no universo físico. Na segunda parte, de natureza positiva, propõe-se um argumento explicativo da relação mente-corpo partindo-se, para tanto, de uma assunção e duas premissas. A assunção afirma que a mente tem o mesmo importe ontológico da matéria física, sendo estes considerados como elementos composicionais, afirmação a qual se denomina dualismo elementar. No que se refere às premissas, propõe-se duas, a saber, a tese composicional holística, que afirma que a mente e a matéria são partes constitutivas de um todo chamado substância simples, e a tese composicional mereológica, que afirma que as substâncias simples ou mônadas compõem mereologicamente, por superveniência, a relação mente-corpo. Examinam-se também algumas objeções ao argumento monadista proposto. / This thesis offers an explanatory argument concerning the mind-body relation, an argument that is grounded on the notion of monad, or the simple substance, as an ontological element for proposing a contemporary approach to the mind-body relation. In the first part, a critique of the current physicalist theories of mind is given, namely, supervenience, emergence and mental causation, in order to justify the proposal of a dualist premiss which aims at an ontology of mind which satisfies the realistic intuitions of common sense and of folk psychology on the causal efficacy and relevance of the mind amid the physical, in opposition to the epiphenomenalist view of contemporary physicalist theories. In the second part, the positive one, we propose an explanatory argument for monadism about mind-body relations, based on an assumption and two premises. The assumption says that the mind has the same ontological import of the physical matter, and they, mind and matter, are considered to be elements entering the composition of psychophysical relations, an assumption called elementary dualism. Regarding the premises, we propose two, namely, the holistic compositional thesis, which asserts that mind and matter are parts entering the composition of true wholes called substances, and the mereological compositional thesis, which says that such simple substances compose, via supervenience, the mind-body relations. Some objections to the proposed monadist argument are examined and rejoindered as well.