<p> </p><p>Due to its impact on human health and the nature surrounding us, diesel engine emissions have been significantly reduced over the last two decades. This reduction has been enforced by the legislating organs around the world that gradually have made the manufacturers transform their engines to today’s complex high-tech products. One of the most challenging areas to meet the legislations is transient operation where the inertia in gas-exchange system makes transition from one load to another problematic.</p><p> </p><p>Modern engines have great potential to minimize the problems associated with transient operation. However, their complexity also imposes a great challenge regarding optimization and systematical testing of transient control strategies in an engine test bed could be both expensive and time consuming.</p><p> </p><p>The objective of this project is to facilitate optimization of transient control strategies. This should be done by identifying appropriate measurement methods for evaluation of transients and by providing models that can be used to optimize strategies off-line.</p><p> </p><p>Measurement methods for evaluation of transients have been tested in several experiments, mainly focusing on emission but also regarding e.g. EGR flow. Applicable instruments for transient emission measurements have been identified and used. However, no method to measure soot emissions cycle resolved has yet been found. Other measurements such as EGR flow and temperatures are believed to have significantly decreased accuracy during transients.</p><p> </p><p>A model for prediction of NOx emissions have been used and complemented with a new approach for soot emission predictions that has been developed in this project. The emission models have been shown to be applicable over a wide range of operating conditions with exception for highly premixed combustion. It has also been shown that models developed for steady state conditions can be used for transients operation.</p>

<h1>Abstract</h1><p>The future of ethanol is depending on good solutions for the production. ENA energy power plant produces electrical power and district heating by heating biofuel. By building an integrated bioenergy plant surplus steam could be used to produce ethanol as fuel to vehicle.</p><p>This would mean that ethanol is produced renewable energy and the energy for the process derives from the surplus of power.  ENA energy, MDH (the University of Mälardalen) and the energy authority has initiated a research project were different bioenergy combinations integrate with existing power plant.  As a part of the project which size an integrated factory should be to gain the best efficiency for the plant was investigated. Consideration will be taken to the cost of the production in order to be competitive to the price of imported ethanol.</p><p> </p><p> </p><p>Etanolens framtid vilar på bra lösningar för framställning.  I ENA energi kraftverk i Enköping produceras el och fjärrvärme genom eldning av biobränsle.  Genom att bygga ett integrerat bioenergikraftverk där skulle man kunna använda överskottsånga till att framställa etanol som fordonsbränsle. Detta skulle innebära att etanolen framställs med ett förnybart bränsle och energin till framställningen kommer från ett överskott på värme.   ENA energi, MDH och energimyndigheten har initierat ett forskningsprojekt där en bioenergiintegrering skall undersökas.  Som del i detta skall här undersökas vilken storlek en integrerad etanolfabrik skall ha för att nå högsta totala verkningsgrad för verket samt om framställningspriset kan konkurrera med importerad etanol.</p><p> </p>

Today communicating sensors are everywhere. There are sensors in our smart phones, in our vehicles, even in our homes. As the technology in electronics and wireless communication is developed more devices is installed all around us. The Internet connected network of physical objects is called the Internet of Things (IoT). The IoT devices send, receive and exchange data in order to control, monitor and optimize. The possible appliances for IoT spans industries, healthcare, cities, airports, and much more. This project targets the current state of IoT, how the development of IoT might affect building services engineering and possible future IoT appliances in buildings. The main appliances of IoT in buildings are energy saving procedures, maintenance improvements, chore automation and security enhancements. Energy saving in buildings has been a hot topic for many years due to global warming. IoT offers the possibility to reduce greenhouse gases, not only locally but also on a grander scheme. This project investigate possible energy savings by assuming that IoT can create an optimal ventilation and heating schedules. The analysis is carried out by simulating energy consumption in an apartment building using IDA ICE. The apartment building used as a reference model is located in Lycksele, Sweden. The result shows a modest energy saving of 100 kWh/apartment for heating and 250 kWh/apartment for ventilation optimization. The conclusion is that energy saving potential of IoT lies in interoperability between devices and the possibility to find correlations between data, not in individual optimizations. The main focus of IoT today in the building sector is to assist facility management with supervision of real estate. Sensors that send information about the state of devices decreases the supervision time of operating technicians. It's fundamental for facility management companies to cooperate with building engineering companies in order to avoid a constant change of batteries in IoT devices installed in buildings. By settle necessary power connections during the construction phase of a building the need for batteries is limited.

There is currently an ongoing urban transformation in a small Swedish town named Kiruna, it is located in the very north of Sweden well above the Arctic Circle in a sub-arctic climate. Large part of the town will be relocated due to the ground deformation that is caused by the progressing iron ore mining activity and it is affecting all infrastructures of the town. This thesis aims to accomplish a holistic analysis on the district heating (DH) system for the town of Kiruna and its future challenges. Energy companies with a DH system recognize the importance in having a good understanding about the network characteristics, for obtaining an efficient and stabile heat delivery to the end-users. In this thesis, a method for modeling and simulation of meshed DH networks is described, that makes it possible to study and analyze the flow pattern in order to locate non-obvious paths, bottlenecks and overloaded pipes. For carrying out the DH simulations a fundamental input is to set the thermal losses for each pipe segment in the model, a fictitious series with all pipe diameters is created which corresponds to the annual losses in the real network. In comparison with the pipes series manufactured today the created one is best described by the series with least insulation and highest thermal losses. The studied network has its origin in the 60th and is the sum of the different piping technics that has been valid over time, this mixture is positioning the thermal performance as a close to a worst-case scenario. To the meshed DH network a number of heat production sites are connected for delivering the thermal requested by the end-users, each site consisting of several boilers and using different resources. A hybrid evolutionary-Mixed Integer Linear Programing (MILP) optimization approach is developed and applied for finding the cost-optimal heat production for three scenarios in combination of two heating demand levels. It is stated that no matter the geographically location of the site the cheapest resource should always be favorable as fuel, in the case when the same resource is viable at different sites a differentiated heat production is obtained. The supply temperature from each site is found to be the one lowest possible in order to serve all site-concerned end-users with a temperature level high enough for hot water production. The findings recommend a network temperatures reduction with the consequence in higher cost related to pumping work, but is lower than the savings due to the reduction in thermal losses. In order to provide the relocated part of the town with DH the hybrid evolutionary-MILP optimization routine is reshaped for finding different alternatives for network expansion layouts. The result is presented as a multi objective analysis between the operation cost and installation cost, showing the complete spectra of all optimal possible solutions and how the different cost correlate to each other. In this way, the outcome can be used for support in decision making, helping network owners is their planning and pipe sizing for new areas. For constructing the buildings that will populate the new city-area the Swedish government has stated a number of recommendations for achieving livable thermal indoor climate. An investigation is carried out analyzing the impact from the usage of three different heating system; air/air heat pump, air heating and floor heating in a low energy family house, where the first two system are aimed to use heat from the DH network. The analysis show that only the floor heating system satisfies the recommendations stated, but with carefully planning an air heating system could also fulfill the recommendations. Further, a techno-economical evaluation declares that the cheapest heating cost over 30 years is by using an air/air heat pump. In order to make DH competitive as heating source the needed price reduction is found for the hydronic floor and air heating system. Finally, three different building energy performance scenarios are studied in conjunction with the urban transformation in combination with the suggested energy measures from the Energy Performance certificates (EPC). In order to reach the national target entailing a reduction of 50% until 2050 all re-built buildings have to be built with passive standard and all advised measures in the EPC has to be carried out. Wort noticing is that the scenarios is analyzed as part of a 3-D City Model, which is found to be a worthwhile working tool for staff dealing with energy related issues.

The purpose of this thesis is to increase the energy efficiency of SIA Glass AB’s facility, investigate the possibilities of utilization of the facilities low-temperature waste heat and the possibilities to reach their ambition of becoming self-sufficient on renewable energy. Prior to the investigation of potential measures, an energy audit was made in the facility, where SS-EN 16247–1:2012 has been used as a basis. The largest share of the electricity consumption at SIA Glass AB’s facility comes from the refrigerating machines, corresponding to 69.5% of the total electricity consumption. When implementing investigated measures, SIA Glass AB can reduce their energy consumption by 559 MWh per year, accounting for about 8% of the total energy usage. Furthermore, there is a potential for 152.74 Tonnes reduced carbon dioxide emissions each year if just the nearby retirement home connects to SIA Glass AB’s waste heat system. It would be profitable for both SIA Glass AB’s and the retirement home. If more customer chooses to connect to SIA Glass AB’s waste heat system, the carbon dioxide emissions and the pay-off time can be further reduced. In order for SIA Glass AB to become self-sufficient on renewable energy, the possibilities for construction of a solar cell facility on top of the new freezer storage, as well as investment in a wind power plant has been investigated. To reach their ambition, a power plant that can cover the energy demand of 6940 MWh is required. The potential for a more efficient energy usage within the facility are good, where most the investments of the proposals are generally low.

In this study, efforts to improve energy efficiency in seven housing cooperatives associated to the citizens' initiative HS2020, were studied. The aim of the study was to identify and compile the energysaving measures that have been carried out by the housing cooperatives since 2013. Furthermore the study aims to investigate how much the presented measures can lower the energy consumption. Two of the housing cooperatives served as examples and the expected saving from the energy saving measures were investigated using the simulation program VIP Energy. To better understand the motives and incentives for the work, interviews were made with the board members of the housing cooperatives. The results of the study show that four out of the seven investigated cooperatives have already reached the goal of a specific energy uselower than 100 kWh/m2/year. The most effective energy-saving measuresare the installation of exhaust air heat pump and the lowering of the indoor temperature. The simulation results for the installation of heat pumps showed that the heating demand was reduced by 55.4 percent, and the specific energy consumption was reduced by 30 percent. In summary, the HS2020 is on the right track to reach the goals set for 2020, but further work is required to get there. It is of utmost importance that the cooperatives strengthen their expertise in energyrelated questions, and HS2020 has an important role in this work.

Idag utförs internationella standardtest på solcellspanelerna som speglar instrålningsförhållandenaen klar dag. Instrålningsförhållandena i norra Sverige skiljer sig från de på södra breddgrader. Solens bana är flackare sett till horisonten vilket medför högre luftmassförhållande,lägre instrålad effekt och större andel diffust ljus. Detta kan påverka vilken typ av modul som bäst lämpar sig för användning på norra breddgrader. En instrålningsanalys, produktionsanalys samt simulering av produktion i programmet PVsyst har utförts. Data till instrålningsanalysen är hämtad för Kiruna, Luleå, Norrköping,Visby och Piteå. Uppmätt data från SMHI och en lokal väderstation i Piteå jämfördes med resultat från instrålningsmodellen STRÅNG. Uppmätt data för olika orter jämfördes. Produktionsanalysen genomfördes för två trackingsystem, Kempersystemet och Degersystemet i Piteå 2017, där produktionen per modultyp ställdes mot varandra inom samma system. Trackingsystemens produktion simulerades för 2017 och jämfördes med dess uppmätta produktion. Resultatet från jämförelsen mellan orternas instrålning visade att Luleå, sett till andelen diffust ljus, liknar Norrköping mer än Kiruna, trots att Kiruna är närmre. STRÅNG tycks ofta underskatta instrålningen samt vara bättre på att modellera klara dagar. Den lokala väderstationens globala horisontella instrålning stämde bra överens med uppmätt instrålning från SMHI för Luleå 2017. Produktionsanalysen visade att tunnfilmsmodulen CIGS QSmart producerade mest, sett till Wh/Wp, under perioderna med högre total produktion medan monokristallina modulen Yingli Panda producerade lägst. För perioder med lägre total produktion var resultatet de motsatta. Sett till år 2017 producerade den texturerade multikristallina ITS ARC modulen mest. Bäst lämpad modul för användning på nordliga breddgrader tycks därför variera beroende på studerad period. Simulering av Kempersystemets produktion gav ca 1600kWh=kWp mer än den uppmätta produktionen medan Degersystemets gav ca 140kWh=kWp mer. Detta kan tyda på att Kempersystemets uppmätta produktion var lägre än väntat 2017. Modulens temperatur och verkningsgrad påverkas av instrålad effekt och shuntmotståndets storlek påverkar mängden energi som modulen kan leverera. Modulerna som installeras på nordliga breddgrader bör vara bra vid diffust ljus, ha låga temperaturkoefficienter och resultatet tyder på att en texturerad yta kan vara att föredra. Modulernas information bör finnas tillgänglig via databladen samt att producenter och återförsäljare borde kunna bistå med den. För att komplettera dagens standardtest bör ytterligare ett test införas som motsvarar en mulen dag med lägre instrålad effekt. / Today, international standard tests are performed on solar panels that represent the conditions of irradiation of a clear day. The irradiation conditions in the north of Sweden is different from more southern latitudes. At northern latitudes, the sun’s path is closer to the horizon, which results in a larger air mass ratio, less irradiation and a larger amount of diffuse light. This can affect the type of module that is best suited for use. At northen latitudes, additional tests might be needed that are not covered by the standard tests. An irradiation analysis, production analysis and a simulation in the photovoltaic system software PVsyst were performed. The data for the irradiation analysis were retrieved for Kiruna, Luleå, Norrköping, Visby and Piteå. Measured data from SMHI and a local weather station in Piteå were compared with results from the solar irradiation model STRÅNG. Measured data for the different locations were compared. The production analysis was preformed for two tracking systems, the Kempersystem and the Degersystem in Piteå 2017. The production per type of module was compared within each system. The trackingsystems production for 2017 was simulated and compared with the measured production. The result of the comparison between the irradiation of the different locations showed that the proportion of diffuse light in Luleå is more similar to Norrköping than Kiruna, even though Kiruna is located closer. STRÅNG often seems to underestimate the irradiation and appears to be better at modeling a clear day. The local weather station’s global horizontal irradiation matched well with measured irradiation from SMHI for Luleå 2017. The production analysis showed that the solar panel CIGS QSmart produced the most in Wh/Wp during periods with high total production, while the solar panel Yingli Panda produced the least. For periods with low total production, the result was the opposite. The textured ITS ARC module had the highest production during 2017. According to the results, most suitable module for use at northern latitudes seems to vary depending on period studied. The simulated production of the Kemper system was approximately 1600kWh/kWp more than the measured production, while the Deger system had around 140kWh/kWp more. This may indicate that the Kemper system’s measured production was lower than expected in 2017. The module’s temperature and efficiency are affected by the irradiation and the size of the shunt resistance that influences the amount of energy that the module can deliver. The modules installed at northern latitudes should be good at diffuse light, have low temperature coefficients and the result indicates that a textured surface may be preferable. The modules information should primarily be available in the data sheets, producers and retailers should be able to contribute with the information. To complement current standard test, another test should be introduced which corresponds to a cloudy day with less irradiation.

Borlänge Energi, BE, owns small district heating, DH, networks in Ornäs and Torsång outside Borlänge, these have high operating costs that are not weighed up by the revenue they make, due to this BE makes a yearly loss on them. Because of this BE wants to connect the small DH networks with the main DH network in Borlänge where the production costs are lower. The technical and economical prerequisites for a connection have therefore been studied. Previous literature has been studied regarding economic parameters for connection of DH networks. Unfortunately, the type of connection that is studied in this report has not been found. The studied literature covers expansion of DH network and connection of larger DH networks, and in most cases, the connecting networks have different owners. Three possible routes were chosen for the connection with Borlänges DH. The current load for Ornäs and Torsång as well as possible new customers was calculated and used to dimension the pipes and calculate the costs for three different scenarios with different loads. Thereafter the costs and incomes from a connection has been calculated, and then used in BEs capital budget where the pay-off time was calculated based on the discounting method. The capital budgets showed that all the routes except one in the base case were profitable within the time frame of 30 years that was set by BE for investments in DH. Sensitivity analyses were made for pay-off time, construction costs and pipe dimension, which showed that the pay-off time is affected by several factors. But was mostly affected if production costs increase or if pipes are dimensioned for a much larger load than what actually is connected in the end. The number of new customers is therefor important to ensure before building the interconnecting pipe. Pipe dimension was affected most by the load as the transition losses are relatively small, and the building costs were affected most by the cost of the DH pipes since they constitute a large part of those costs. Besides from the technical and economical results it has been shown that each and all of the routes have its own prerequisites, where each route has its own pros and cons. All-in-all one route has been chosen as more suitable than the other two, as it besides one of the shortest pay off times also include possibilities to connect new customers along the route. As district heating is dependent on local conditions, in regard to both the technical aspects and the soil composition, the report includes several simplifications and assumptions, which have been made based on local conditions and experience. It is necessary to take this into consideration before attempting to apply the findings of this report in other places than Borlänge. / Borlänge Energi, BE, har fristående fjärrvärmenät i Ornäs och Torsång, dessa har höga produktionskostnader som inte vägs upp av intäkterna från kunderna, varför BE gör en årlig förlust på dem. På grund av detta vill BE koppla samman fjärrvärmenäten med fjärrvärmenätet i Borlänge där produktionskostnaderna är lägre. De tekniska och ekonomiska förutsättningarna för en sammankoppling har därför studerats. Där BE kräver en återbetalningstid inom 30 år. Tidigare litteratur har studerats för att undersöka de viktigaste ekonomiska parametrarna vid sammankoppling av fjärrvärmenät. Tyvärr hittades ingen litteratur kring samma typ av sammankoppling som detta examensarbete undersökt. Den litteratur som hittades handlade i stället om sammankoppling av större nät som i de allra flesta fall ägdes av olika aktörer, eller expansion till helt nya områden. Tre möjliga sträckningar valdes ut för en sammankoppling med Borlänges fjärrvärmenät. Lasten för Ornäs och Torsång samt eventuellt tillkommande nyanslutningar beräknades och utifrån den har ledningar dimensionerats och kostnadsberäknats utifrån tre scenarier med olika last. Därefter har kostnader och inkomster som en sammankoppling medför beräknats som sedan användes i BE:s investeringskalkyl där avbetalningstiden för investeringen beräknades enligt nuvärdesmetoden. Investeringskalkylerna visade att samtliga sträckningar, förutom en, i grundfallet var lönsamma inom den tidsram på 30 år som var uppsatt av BE för investeringar i fjärrvärme. Känslighetsanalyser gjordes för återbetalningstid, anläggningskostnader och rördimension som visade att återbetalningstiden påverkades av flera faktorer men mest om produktionskostnaderna ökar eller om stora delar av de planerade nyanslutningarna faller bort. Anslutningsgraden är därför en viktig parameter att säkerställa att den stämmer innan en transiteringledning byggs. Dimensioneringen påverkades också främst av lasten då transiteringsförlusterna i förhållande relativt små, och anläggningskostnaderna påverkades främst av rörkostnaden som är den största kostnadsposten där. Förutom de tekniska och ekonomiska aspekterna har de olika sträckningarna skilda förutsättningar, där var och en har sina för- och nackdelar. Sammantaget har en sträckning valts ut som mer lämplig än de andra två, då den förutom att den har en av de lägre återbetalningstiderna, har fördelar i form av möjliga nyanslutningar efter vägen. Då fjärrvärme är beroende av lokala förhållanden, både vad gäller teknik och markförhållanden innehåller rapporten flertalet förenklingar och antaganden som gjorts baserat på lokala förhållanden och erfarenheter. Detta måste detta tas i beaktning innan försök görs att applicera resultaten på andra platser än Borlänge.

Global efforts makes buildings successively more energy efficient. This results in that the percentage of the total energy in the building that is lost to the sewage system, in the form of hot water, is increasing. The characteristics of the wastewater originating from the urban water cycle makes it an attractive heat source which is relatively unexploited. Wastewater heat recovery (WWHR) systems is a group of systems designed to reduce a buildings use of external energy sources by recovering the heat out of the wastewater before it is let out into the sewage.         The focus of this report is a parametric study performed on a WWHR system that utilises thermal storage tanks for accumulation of wastewater and a heat pump equipped with heat exchangers for the heat recovery. The studied variables are the amount of energy that the system is able to recover out of the wastewater and the seasonal average COP of the heat pump. The change of these two variables were analysed both as an affect of parameters dependent of system design and on consumption patterns of the residents of the building. The results showed that by properly designing the system the recovery degree can be increased by 31.5 percentage points reaching values above 90 % and the seasonal average COP can be increased by 13.5 % reaching values of 5.13. However, these two variables stands in contrast to each other were maximising one will reduce the other and it is proposed that it is important to take both into account when evaluating a WWHR system. It is also shown that the consumption related parameters have a relatively big effect on the system. The change in recovery degree as a result of these non-controllable parameter is 14 percentage points and the seasonal average COP changes with 4.2 %.         The system performance as a result of changing the U-value of the heat exchanger connecting the system to the domestic hot water circuit was also analysed. This showed an exponential relation between the U-value and delivered energy from the heat pump. The results showed that an increase of the U-value from 50 W/K to 6000 W/K increased the yearly energy supplied with 37.6 % but an increase from 1000 W/K to 6000 W/K increased the yearly supplied energy with less than 1 %. This result highlights the importance of properly dimensioning the heat exchanger.

Hydropower plants are shifting towards operating at off-designed conditions, meaning that the number of start-stop cycles and maintenance time due to cavitation increases. The speed no-load condition is the moment before magnetization of the generator, i.e., no load, low flow, constant runner rotational speed, guide vane and runner blade angle. Since no load is applied, the water dissipates its energy in forms of highly recirculating and turbulent flow. This master thesis aim is to simulate the speed no-load condition on the Porjus U9 turbine and validate numerical values against experimental ones. ICEM CFD was used to mesh the domains and ANSYS CFX was used to perform the simulation. The setup was split into two zones, Zone 1 and Zone 2, and an intermediate zone overlapping both zones. Zone 1 consists of the penstock and spiral, the intermediate zone consists of the spiral and distributor passages and Zone 2 consists of a distributor passage, runner and draft tube. Streamlines in the runner and draft tube show highly recirculating flow from the draft tube back into the runner. The numerical values did not correspond well against the experimental. This is deemed most likely due to an overall low pressure over the runner blades. It is recommended as a first step to increase the quality of the runner and distributor mesh to get the simulation running with the cavitation model implemented.