India's electricity system is faced with the challenges of meeting the growing demand for electricity, managing recurring shortages in supply and addressing concerns of global warming. India is adopting a two-pronged approach to address these challenges – (i) making huge investments in new technologies, and (ii) enacting new policies to promote low carbon initiatives. Together, they are believed to help in achieving energy security as well as mitigation of global warming. Such low carbon initiatives can alter the traditional electricity planning and provide with a wide set of supply options to achieve a transition in to a low carbon electricity planning (LCEP). At the outset, one has to explore the supply options for an optimal supply-demand matching of electricity. While finding out various alternatives to meet the demand on a continuous basis using existing supply, non-supply and future supply options, the technology challenges of low carbon options, renewable energy policies and emissions policies need to be studied in detail from the perspective of a developing country keeping India as a focus. The effectiveness of renewable energy and emissions policy interventions such as Renewable Purchase Obligation (RPO), Renewable Energy Certificate (REC), Renewable Energy Certificate Excess (RECX), Emission Tax and Emission Cap-and-Trade and emission policies need to be assessed. Based on the analysis of the literature review, it appears that there is no mathematical model for optimally matching the supply with electricity demand simultaneously considering all the complexities for LCEP discussed in this study. The overall objective of the research is to develop, validate and apply a set of mathematical models to address a complex research problem of "LCEP of existing supply, non-supply and future supply options in the presence of technology and policy interventions to achieve a least-cost, low carbon and sustainable electricity system". This complex research problem is decomposed into five independent LCEP problems based on real-life situations. For each of these five LCEP problems, a mathematical model is proposed. For generating the five proposed mathematical models for any given data, LINGO Set Codes have been developed. In order to validate the proposed mathematical models, data was collected from the Karnataka state electricity system. For the collected data, the proposed mathematical models are generated using the LINGO Set Codes and solved using LINGO. From the optimal solutions, insights are drawn on the impact and effectiveness of low carbon interventions on the present electricity system which is in a transition towards a low carbon electricity system. It is our belief that the proposed mathematical models can act as a basis for introducing any new low carbon interventions such as energy efficiency certificates, auction based tariff mechanisms for renewable energy pricing, and other new REC interventions in the future scope.

Le changement des comportements individuels s'est récemment imposé comme un objectif majeur pour l'action publique, qui mobilise dans cette optique de nouveaux savoirs de gouvernement : les sciences comportementales. Ces savoirs sont employés de manière explicite et croissante dans la politique énergétique du Japon pour réduire la consommation d’énergie des ménages, dans un contexte marqué par l’accident nucléaire de Fukushima et la libéralisation des marchés de l’énergie. Cette thèse examine les facteurs explicatifs et les modalités concrètes de cette transformation significative dans un domaine jusque-là dominé par une approche techno-économique prêtant peu attention aux comportements. Notre analyse associe des perspectives théoriques et méthodologiques issues de la sociologie de l'action publique et des études sur les transferts de politiques publiques pour retracer la genèse et la mise en œuvre de deux expérimentations : celle des réseaux électriques « intelligents » dans les Smart Communities et celle des nudges et des Home Energy Reports de l’entreprise étasunienne Opower. La conduite d’environ quatre-vingt entretiens semi-directifs et l’examen de nombreuses sources écrites ont mis en évidence la place centrale des circulations transnationales dans l’élaboration et la conduite de ces programmes et plus généralement de la politique énergétique de l’archipel.Nous défendons la thèse que la mobilisation des sciences comportementales dans la politique énergétique japonaise résulte d’une multiplicité de facteurs qui questionne l’opposition entre des changements de nature soit endogène soit exogène, et la distinction entre facteurs domestiques et facteurs extranationaux. Le recours à ces savoirs de gouvernement s’explique en effet par la capacité d’un petit groupe d’acteurs programmatiques japonais à introduire dans la politique énergétique des sciences et des instruments originaires de l’étranger, en réponse à des enjeux spécifiques au Japon. Notre analyse microsociologique des stratégies de ces acteurs invite à une endogénéisation de l’explication du changement intégrant les facteurs exogènes et les dynamiques extranationales. La mobilisation des sciences comportementales dans la politique nippone résulte indissociablement de l’essor de ces savoirs dans la recherche et l’action publique aux États-Unis et en Europe, des stratégies d’acteurs transnationaux, étasuniens et japonais, et de la prégnance des enjeux climatiques et énergétiques sur l’archipel. Nous suggérons par ailleurs que les États-Unis sont au cœur de la circulation des sciences comportementales dans le domaine de l’énergie, et que le recours à ces savoirs dans l’action publique s’explique par, outre leur succès académique, leur dimension « pratique » et « consensuelle ». / In recent years, changing individual behaviours has become a key issue for public policy, which has been mobilising new bodies of knowledge, namely behavioural sciences. These are explicitly and increasingly used in Japan’s energy policy in order to lower household energy consumption, in the context of both the Fukushima nuclear disaster and the liberalisation of the energy markets. My dissertation investigates the explanatory factors and the implementation of this significant change in a policy domain which was so far marked by a techno-economic approach paying little attention to behavioural issues. Drawing on theoretical and methodological perspectives from public policy analysis and policy transfer studies, I analyse the genesis and the implementation of two large-scale programs: first, the smart grid social experiments named Smart Communities; second, the Opower’s Home Energy Reports pilot study. Building on about eighty semi-structured interviews and on a wide variety of written sources, I emphasise the major role played by transnational circulations in the design and the implementation of these programs, and more broadly in Japan’s energy policy.I argue that the mobilisation of behavioural sciences in Japan’s energy policy results from manifolds factors which question the opposition between the endogenous and exogenous nature of policy change, as well as the distinction between domestic and extranational factors. Indeed, the use of this body of knowledge can be explained by the strategies of a few stakeholders who achieved to introduce new policy ideas and tools coming from abroad, in response to issues faced by the Japanese Government. Through a micro-sociological analysis of their strategies, I suggest to endogenize the explanation of policy change while integrating exogenous factors and extranational dynamics. The mobilisation of behavioural sciences in Japan’s energy policy results inseparably from the expansion of this body of knowledge in academia and in public policy in the US and in Europe; from the strategies of transnational, Japanese and American stakeholders; and from the stringency of climate and energy problems in Japan. The US plays a central role in the transnational circulation of behavioural sciences in the energy field, which can be explained by the “practical” and “consensual” dimension of these sciences.

La pénurie de charbon a constitué une des préoccupations incessantes de la politique énergétique à partir des années trente en France. Dès la Libération, ce problème a conduit le gouvernement à adopter le programme de modernisation du charbonnage. Vers le début des années cinquante, la pénurie absolue en charbon a été endiguée. Dans le même temps, l'ouverture de la CECA a fourni davantage de facilités aux Français pour importer les charbons. Toutefois, le choix du gouvernement a plutôt consisté à accélérer le programme de renforcement de la production de charbon en vue de satisfaire les besoins le plus possible grâce à sa propre production dans une période où le pays souffrait d'une aggravation de la situation de la balance des comptes commerciaux. Cette politique s'est basée sur des hypothèses prévoyant une progression continuelle des besoins en charbon et que les mines françaises se trouvaient en mesure d'améliorer suffisamment leur compétitivité pour concurrencer leurs homologues étrangères. Cependant, ces hypothèses n'ont pas été confirmées par les faits. La crise du charbon de 1958 a provoqué un gonflement des stocks qui a obligé le gouvernement à annoncer le Plan Jeanneney. Le gouvernement a essayé par ailleurs de résoudre le problème de l'accumulation des stocks. Cet effort s'est concrétisé par la conclusion d'un contrat entre l'EDF et les CDF en 1965 par suite de l'intervention des pouvoirs publics. Ces derniers ont contraint l'EDF à accepter tous les charbons proposés par les CDF. L'EDF devait ainsi supporter les charges résultant de la politique d'accroissement de la production charbonnière menée par le gouvernement selon des prévisions erronées. / One of the most urgent tasks for French economy after Libération was to increase coal production. French government nationalized coal industry in 1946 and decided to increase coal production in the framework of Monnet Plan by concentrating financial and material resource to coal industry. France succeeded in increasing coal production according to Monnet Plan by the early 50's. The government estimated that national demand for coal would increase constantly through 50's and 60's. On the other hand, France had easier access to coal importation than before in 1952 with the institution of ECSC. However, French government decided to continue to increase national coal production in order to meet national demand for coal by its own production, and in order not to deteriorate current account. But in fact, national demand for coal did not increased as the government estimated. Coal crisis in 1958 forced the government to revise coal production programme to reduce national coal output. Meanwhile, French government made efforts to secure outlets of national coal. These efforts were concretized by the conclusion of contract between Électricité de France (EDF) et Charbonnages de France (CDF). By this contract, EDF was obliged to receive all quantity of national coal that CDF hoped to sell to electric sector. Thus, electric sector had to pay the price for coal policy that the government drew up according to the wrong estimation of national demand for coal.

Nas últimas décadas, o tema "meio ambiente" tem se tornado alvo cada vez maior de discussão, dado a grande dependência, em escala mundial, da energia gerada por combustíveis fósseis, os quais são finitos. Dessa forma, buscam-se alternativas à geração de energia hoje predominante focadas na sustentabilidade e na utilização de fontes limpas e renováveis. Nesse contexto, o estímulo ao uso de fontes de energia renováveis tem crescido não só no Brasil como no exterior. Dentre as diversas possibilidades temos, a energia eólica que, dado o estágio atual de maturidade de sua indústria, a diminuição dos preços dos aerogeradores à medida que a tecnologia evolui e os incentivos dados pelo governo federal à construção de usinas eólicas, tem aumentado ano a ano sua participação na matriz energética brasileira, atualmente em 1,78%, com perspectiva de chegar aproximadamente em 9% até 2021, segundo dados da ANEEL e da ABEEólica (Associação Brasileira de Energia Eólica). Além disso, é mister ressaltar que a utilização em larga escala da matriz eólica para a produção de energia elétrica tem o objetivo de diminuir a dependência da produção de energia por meio de combustíveis fósseis, os quais não são renováveis e são extremamente poluentes. Assim, tendo em vista o aumento da competitividade da geração de energia eólica no Brasil nos últimos anos, objetiva-se, por meio da presente monografia, analisar inicialmente a atual indústria de geração de energia elétrica sob o novo marco regulatório e, em seguida, a especificidade da indústria de geração de energia eólica, a potencialidade de geração de energia eólica no Brasil, a regulação específica incidente sobre tal geração de energia, em consonância com o novo marco regulatório do setor elétrico e os incentivos para sua produção no Brasil. / MBA Executivo (especialização em Administração) - Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro. Instituto de Pós-Graduação e Pesquisa em Administração, Rio de Janeiro, 2013. / Bibliografia: p. [22-25]

Capes / Os indicadores energéticos são instrumentos de apoio a processos decisórios, sobre energia, e com a crescente discussão sobre desenvolvimento sustentável estes instrumentos passaram a incorporar informações socioambientais, além dos tradicionais fatores econômicos. Sendo assim, na busca pelo desenvolvimento sustentável, torna-se relevante conhecer quais são as contribuições e limitações destes instrumentos. Com este fim, o objetivo geral é analisar as contribuições e limitações dos indicadores energéticos como instrumentos de apoio ao desenvolvimento sustentável. Esta pesquisa é classificada como descritiva, utilizando levantamento bibliográfico e documental. Como resultado da análise documental foram selecionados 55 indicadores energéticos para o desenvolvimento sustentável (Energy Indicator Sustainable Development – EISD), sendo estes identificados a partir das instituições International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), Helio International e World Energy Council (WEC), dentre 19 instituições ligadas à pesquisa sobre energia identificadas na pesquisa. Durante a análise, percebeu-se que a maioria dos indicadores selecionados, 19 EISDs (34,54%), se concentra na dimensão econômica, seguidos de 10 EISDs (18,18%) na dimensão ambiental, 9 EISDs (16,36%) na dimensão social, 7 EISDs (12,45%) são classificados em resiliência, 4 EISDs (7,27%) em governança, 3 EISDs (5,45%) em vulnerabilidade e 3 EISDs (5,45%) em política. Apesar da inclusão de indicadores ligados a outras dimensões, além da econômica, a qualidade da informação gerada pelos indicadores surge como uma limitação destes, pois, identificou-se que, em casos recorrentes, as informações geradas pelos EISDs podem ser interpretadas tanto de forma a favorecer o desenvolvimento sustentável quanto a levar a ações opostas a este objetivo. Ainda, foram identificados EISDs cujos componentes não foram especificados, o que pode possibilitar a geração de informações afastadas do cenário real, caso sejam utilizados componentes que não possuem relação com o EISD, ou mesmo a não utilização de componentes relevantes. Ainda assim, apesar das limitações, a existência de conjuntos de EISDs para auxiliar os tomadores de decisão é um fato que contribui na busca por desenvolvimento sustentável, e que deve ser aprimorado, pois a disponibilidade de informações envolvendo questões socioambientais, como emissão de poluentes atmosféricos, de solo e de água, resultantes de fontes energética, possibilita identificar quais fontes são mais, ou menos, prejudiciais ao desenvolvimento sustentável. Contudo, a dificuldade na coleta de dados, na identificação dos componentes para o cálculo de cada indicador e mesmo na interpretação deste, como destacado, pode não só deixar de contribuir com o desenvolvimento sustentável, como pode protelar a tomada de decisões corretivas ou preventivas. / Energy indicators are tools to support decision-making on energy. The growing debate on sustainable development, contributed to the energy indicators began to incorporate, besides the traditional economic, social and environmental information. Therefore, taking sustainable development into account, it is important to know contributions and limitations of these tools. The overall goal of this study is to analyze the contributions and limitations of the energy indicators as assets to support sustainable development.This study can be classified as descriptive because it relies on bibliographical and documental material. As a result of documental analysis, 55 energy indicators for sustainable development (EISD) were selected. The selection took place by identification of those indicators through the institutions International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), Helio International and World Energy Council (WEC), among 19 institutions involved in research on energy identified in the survey. The study stresses that most of the selected indicators focuses on the economic dimension, 19 EISDs (34.54%), followed by 10 EISDs (18.18%) focused on the environmental dimension, 9 EISDs (16.36%) focused on the social issues, 7 EISDs (12.45%) are classified as resilience, 4 EISDs (7.27%) is about governance, 3 EISDs (5.45%) focused on vulnerability and 3 EISDs (5.45%) is about policy. Despite the inclusion of indicators associated with other dimensions than economy, information provided by those indicators emerges as their own limitation. Because, recently, indicators’ information were used to promote sustainable development as well as the opposite. Additionally, the study identified EISDs whose components were not specified. They may enable generation of information far from the real scenario, if components dissociated EISD would be taking into consideration or even the non-consideration of relevant components. Despite limitations, EISDs assisting decision-makers contributes to the pursuit of sustainable development. But they may be improved through information about environmental issues, such as emission of atmospheric pollutants, soil and water, resulting from energy sources, helps identifying which sources are more or less harmful for sustainable development. However, difficulty in collecting data, identifying the components for calculation of each indicator and even interpretation of this, as analyzed, may not only fail to contribute to sustainable development, as can delay taking corrective or preventive decisions.

CAPES / Veículos elétricos (VEs) são vistos como uma das potenciais soluções para os problemas ambientais associados com os veículos de combustão interna (VCIs). VEs, no entanto, também causam impactos ambientais ao longo do ciclo de vida e aumento no consumo de eletricidade, sendo também necessário incluí-los no planejamento energético. Estudos de Avaliação do Ciclo de Vida (ACV) realizados para avaliar os impactos ambientais de VEs em outros países mostram que a fonte de eletricidade é significativa para determinar se estes apresentam melhores resultados que VCIs. O caso brasileiro, contudo, pode apresentar resultados diferentes, em função da matriz elétrica diferente e da possibilidade de utilização de etanol pelos VCIs. O objetivo geral deste estudo é identificar como atender a demanda por transporte de pessoas por automóveis com menor impacto ambiental, para diferentes categorias de impacto, no Brasil. Para realizar o estudo, foram realizadas quatro etapas: (i) definir dados gerais, como o ano de projeção; (ii) identificar a frota de automóveis e a respectiva demanda energética e opções de atendimento; (iii) realizar ACV por veículo; e (iv) avaliar o impacto ambiental da frota, comparando e selecionando opções de menor impacto. Foram considerados dois horizontes de tempo: 2022 e 2030. Foi utilizada a base de dados de inventário do ciclo de vida (ICV) do ecoinvent v.3.01, com adaptações para o contexto brasileiro utilizando dados de literatura. Especificamente na definição da fonte de eletricidade, utilizou-se a abordagem decisional de ICV para 2022, enquanto que, para 2030, foram definidas possíveis tecnologias marginais/incrementais. Utilizou-se o método de avaliação do impacto do ciclo de vida CML 2000 v.2.05, sendo que para 2030 foram selecionadas três categorias (depleção de recursos abióticos; aquecimento global; depleção da camada de ozônio), em conjunto com resultados de ICV para ocupação da terra. Para 2030, utilizou-se, também, em análise de sensibilidade, o método EDIP 2003 v.1.04. Esses métodos estão disponíveis no software SimaPro v.8.0.2, utilizado para os cálculos. Os resultados para 2022 mostraram que, com recarga em horários de menor demanda, o VE é melhor para algumas categorias e o VCI melhor para outras. Já para 2030, contudo, uma inclusão de aproximadamente 35% de VEs na frota pode reduzir bastante os impactos para as três categorias do método CML e para o indicador único do método EDIP, embora cause aumento significativo na área ocupada. Deste modo, esses resultados poderiam ser comparados com outros tipos de ocupação da terra que visem reduzir impactos ambientais. Conclui-se que os VEs têm potencial de grande redução de impactos ambientais, de forma que poderiam ser alvos de políticas públicas que visem reduzir tais impactos. Entre as incertezas do estudo incluem-se: a simplificação na identificação das fontes de energia; a utilização de parâmetros médios para os veículos, em parte relativos apenas a veículos novos; a definição da tecnologia marginal/incremental apenas para a eletricidade; a não consideração de outras tecnologias, como VCIs a etanol de segunda e terceira geração; e a utilização de dados de inventário do presente ou passado para estimar condições futuras. Estas poderiam ser tratadas em trabalhos futuros. / Electric Vehicles (EVs) are seen as a potential solution for the environmental problems associated with Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles (ICEVs). EVs, on the other hand, also cause environmental impacts throughout their life cycles and increases in the demand for electricity, so that they need to be included in the energy planning. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) studies carried out to assess the environmental impacts of EVs in other countries, indicated that the electricity source is significant to determine whether these present better results than ICEVs or not. For Brazil, however, results might be different, due to the different electricity mix and to the possibility of ICEVs to use sugarcane ethanol. The main purpose of this study is to analyze how to meet the demand for passenger transport by automobiles in Brazil with a smaller environmental impact, for different impact categories. In order to attain this objective, four steps were executed: (i) to define general data, such as the year of projection; (ii) to identify the automobile fleet and the respective energy demand and fulfillment options; (iii) to perform LCA, per vehicle; and (iv) to assess the environmental impact of the fleet, comparing and selecting options with smaller impact. Two time horizons were considered: 2022 and 2030. The ecoinvent database v.3.01 was used as the Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) data source, with some adaptations for the Brazilian context using literature data. Specifically for the identification of the electricity source, the decisional LCI approach was used, for 2022, while, for 2030, possible marginal/incremental technologies were identified. The Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) method CML 2000 v.2.05 was used, from which three categories were chosen for 2030 (abiotic resource depletion; climate change; and ozone layer depletion), together with LCI results for land occupation. The single score of the LCIA method EDIP 2003 v.1.04 was used in a sensitivity analysis. These methods are available in SimaPro 8.0.2, used for calculations. The results for 2022 showed that, with battery charge during off-peak hours, the EV is better in some impact categories, while the ICEV is better in others. For 2030, however, an EV market penetration of approximately 35% can significantly reduce the impacts for the three CML categories and for the EDIP single score, albeit causing a significant increase in land occupation. These results, therefore, can be compared with other types of land occupations which aim to reduce environmental impacts. It was concluded that EVs have good environmental impacts reduction potentials, in a way that they could be targeted by public policies that address such impacts. Among the uncertainties of this study are included: the simplified identification of energy sources; the use of average parameters for the transportation sector, in part associated only with new vehicles; the definition of the marginal/incremental technology only for electricity; the fact that other vehicle technologies, such as ICEVs powered by second and third generation ethanol; and the use of present or past LCI data to assess future conditions. These could be dealt with in future studies.

CAPES / Veículos elétricos (VEs) são vistos como uma das potenciais soluções para os problemas ambientais associados com os veículos de combustão interna (VCIs). VEs, no entanto, também causam impactos ambientais ao longo do ciclo de vida e aumento no consumo de eletricidade, sendo também necessário incluí-los no planejamento energético. Estudos de Avaliação do Ciclo de Vida (ACV) realizados para avaliar os impactos ambientais de VEs em outros países mostram que a fonte de eletricidade é significativa para determinar se estes apresentam melhores resultados que VCIs. O caso brasileiro, contudo, pode apresentar resultados diferentes, em função da matriz elétrica diferente e da possibilidade de utilização de etanol pelos VCIs. O objetivo geral deste estudo é identificar como atender a demanda por transporte de pessoas por automóveis com menor impacto ambiental, para diferentes categorias de impacto, no Brasil. Para realizar o estudo, foram realizadas quatro etapas: (i) definir dados gerais, como o ano de projeção; (ii) identificar a frota de automóveis e a respectiva demanda energética e opções de atendimento; (iii) realizar ACV por veículo; e (iv) avaliar o impacto ambiental da frota, comparando e selecionando opções de menor impacto. Foram considerados dois horizontes de tempo: 2022 e 2030. Foi utilizada a base de dados de inventário do ciclo de vida (ICV) do ecoinvent v.3.01, com adaptações para o contexto brasileiro utilizando dados de literatura. Especificamente na definição da fonte de eletricidade, utilizou-se a abordagem decisional de ICV para 2022, enquanto que, para 2030, foram definidas possíveis tecnologias marginais/incrementais. Utilizou-se o método de avaliação do impacto do ciclo de vida CML 2000 v.2.05, sendo que para 2030 foram selecionadas três categorias (depleção de recursos abióticos; aquecimento global; depleção da camada de ozônio), em conjunto com resultados de ICV para ocupação da terra. Para 2030, utilizou-se, também, em análise de sensibilidade, o método EDIP 2003 v.1.04. Esses métodos estão disponíveis no software SimaPro v.8.0.2, utilizado para os cálculos. Os resultados para 2022 mostraram que, com recarga em horários de menor demanda, o VE é melhor para algumas categorias e o VCI melhor para outras. Já para 2030, contudo, uma inclusão de aproximadamente 35% de VEs na frota pode reduzir bastante os impactos para as três categorias do método CML e para o indicador único do método EDIP, embora cause aumento significativo na área ocupada. Deste modo, esses resultados poderiam ser comparados com outros tipos de ocupação da terra que visem reduzir impactos ambientais. Conclui-se que os VEs têm potencial de grande redução de impactos ambientais, de forma que poderiam ser alvos de políticas públicas que visem reduzir tais impactos. Entre as incertezas do estudo incluem-se: a simplificação na identificação das fontes de energia; a utilização de parâmetros médios para os veículos, em parte relativos apenas a veículos novos; a definição da tecnologia marginal/incremental apenas para a eletricidade; a não consideração de outras tecnologias, como VCIs a etanol de segunda e terceira geração; e a utilização de dados de inventário do presente ou passado para estimar condições futuras. Estas poderiam ser tratadas em trabalhos futuros. / Electric Vehicles (EVs) are seen as a potential solution for the environmental problems associated with Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles (ICEVs). EVs, on the other hand, also cause environmental impacts throughout their life cycles and increases in the demand for electricity, so that they need to be included in the energy planning. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) studies carried out to assess the environmental impacts of EVs in other countries, indicated that the electricity source is significant to determine whether these present better results than ICEVs or not. For Brazil, however, results might be different, due to the different electricity mix and to the possibility of ICEVs to use sugarcane ethanol. The main purpose of this study is to analyze how to meet the demand for passenger transport by automobiles in Brazil with a smaller environmental impact, for different impact categories. In order to attain this objective, four steps were executed: (i) to define general data, such as the year of projection; (ii) to identify the automobile fleet and the respective energy demand and fulfillment options; (iii) to perform LCA, per vehicle; and (iv) to assess the environmental impact of the fleet, comparing and selecting options with smaller impact. Two time horizons were considered: 2022 and 2030. The ecoinvent database v.3.01 was used as the Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) data source, with some adaptations for the Brazilian context using literature data. Specifically for the identification of the electricity source, the decisional LCI approach was used, for 2022, while, for 2030, possible marginal/incremental technologies were identified. The Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) method CML 2000 v.2.05 was used, from which three categories were chosen for 2030 (abiotic resource depletion; climate change; and ozone layer depletion), together with LCI results for land occupation. The single score of the LCIA method EDIP 2003 v.1.04 was used in a sensitivity analysis. These methods are available in SimaPro 8.0.2, used for calculations. The results for 2022 showed that, with battery charge during off-peak hours, the EV is better in some impact categories, while the ICEV is better in others. For 2030, however, an EV market penetration of approximately 35% can significantly reduce the impacts for the three CML categories and for the EDIP single score, albeit causing a significant increase in land occupation. These results, therefore, can be compared with other types of land occupations which aim to reduce environmental impacts. It was concluded that EVs have good environmental impacts reduction potentials, in a way that they could be targeted by public policies that address such impacts. Among the uncertainties of this study are included: the simplified identification of energy sources; the use of average parameters for the transportation sector, in part associated only with new vehicles; the definition of the marginal/incremental technology only for electricity; the fact that other vehicle technologies, such as ICEVs powered by second and third generation ethanol; and the use of present or past LCI data to assess future conditions. These could be dealt with in future studies.

In order to cope with the changing climate, there will be a need for mitigating transformations of a scope, speed and magnitude that are unprecedented in human history, but the consensus- and market-driven approach is inhibiting this transformation. This thesis reviews how various discourses and debates on energy policy within Swedish governments have changed between 1974 and 2017, through the lenses of energy security and depoliticisation, and how a better understanding of these debates and discourses may inform the impending large-scale transformation required to meet the challenge of climate change. Some of the main findings are that (1) nuclear power and the result of the nuclear power referendum have been decisive for energy policy, and that nuclear power will remain of vital importance in the twenty-first century. (2) Energy has become increasingly depoliticised since the 1980s, ensuing the referendum on nuclear power. (3) The discourse on energy security has shifted towards market-based solutions: in the 2000s, climate change is to be mitigated through consumer- oriented solutions such as green certificates. Through privatisation, it essentially has become up to the consumer, deciding whether to participate in mitigation of climate change.

Notre nouveau défi est de protéger l’environnement. Pour réussir cette tâche, beaucoup considèrent qu'il faut réduire notre consommation énergétique. Le développement des énergies renouvelables permettra la réduction des gaz à effet de serre ainsi que notre consommation énergétique. Les pays nordiques ont mis en place des politiques énergétiques différentes selon leurs ressources et leurs expériences. Mais il n'est pas facile de réduire la consommation d’énergie quand les besoins augmentent et qu'il est nécessaire de conserver un haut niveau de vie. Les choix politiques sont très importants surtout pendant ces temps de crise. Il est cependant possible d'utiliser cette nouvelle révolution verte pour relancer l’économie, créer des emplois et bâtir un développement durable respectueux de l’environnement. C'est le défi auquel sont notamment confrontées les économies de l'Europe du nord. Les pays scandinaves partagent la même culture et la même histoire, mais leurs politiques énergétiques sont différentes. Ainsi, la Norvège exploite les hydrocarbures, le Danemark a opté pour l’énergie éolienne, la Suède et la Finlande recourent à l’énergie nucléaire et l’Islande développe son potentiel géothermique. Les choix énergétiques y ont souvent été argumentés par la réduction des gaz à effet de serre, même si la réalité est parfois divergente, les pays nordiques sont sur le bon chemin pour constituer un modèle dans le monde pour le développement durable et pour montrer une nouvelle façon de vivre et une nouvelle façon de penser aux générations futures. / Our new challenge is to succeed in protecting the environment; we have to reduce our energy consumption. The development of renewable energies will decrease greenhouse gases and our energy consumption. The Nordic countries have set up a different energy policy, depending on their own natural resources and know-how. It’s not easy to reduce energy consumption when needs are increasing. Political choices are very important, especially during this crisis period. We must use this new green revolution to revitalize the economy, create employment and build a good sustainable development, which respects the environment and society. The Nordic countries share the same culture, history and language, but their energy policies are different. Norway has chosen hydrocarbons, Denmark wind power, Sweden and Finland nuclear power and Iceland geothermal energy. These choices have always been an argument for the reduction of greenhouse gases, even if the reality is sometimes different. The Nordic countries are setting a good example to the world in sustainable development and showing a new way of life and thinking for the next generations.

This dissertation seeks to contribute to the policy discussion on how to design efficient and sustainable energy policies. In three self-contained chapters, it applies microeconomic theory and empirical analysis to identify three market failures in European energy markets and to evaluate specific policy measures that strive to overcome these failures in order to increase market efficiency and to enhance environmental or societal sustainability. Chapter 1 and 2 study European electricity markets, which play an important role in the transition towards a carbon-neutral energy future. Overcoming barriers to efficient electricity markets is a crucial step to keep the costs of this transition as low as possible to society. Both chapters focus on obstacles to electricity market efficiency that have recently been highlighted by the European Commission. On the supply side, subsidies for renewable electricity may distort production incentives and competition in wholesale electricity markets. Chapter 1 applies a theoretical model to study the effect of different subsidies on producer strategies and competition in wholesale electricity markets. On the demand side, the European Commission seeks to overcome the reluctance of residential electricity consumers to switch electricity supplier in order to ensure effective competition in the retail electricity market. Chapter 2 empirically quantifies different reasons for switching inertia using a structural discrete choice model and performs counterfactual analysis to study the effect of different policy measures that seek to overcome switching inertia. Chapter 3 looks at the building sector, which accounts for 40% of final energy consumption in Europe and is a major emitter of carbon emissions. In the residential housing market information asymmetries hamper incentives to invest in energy efficiency improvements of rental property. This chapter empirically analyzes the effect of a European policy that mandates the use of energy performance certificates aiming at establishing an efficient market for energy efficient dwellings. / Doctorat en Sciences économiques et de gestion / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished