<p dir="ltr">Hydraulic actuation technology is one of the most common ways of transferring power in agricultural and construction machinery. As the system efficiency and fuel consumption of these machines gains more attention due to climate change, a new generation of high-efficient hydraulic architecture is in need. This dissertation presents a study for reducing energy loss in the hydraulic control system of agricultural tractors and their implements. The solution is referred to as a multi-pressure rail (MPR) system and provides power to the hydraulic functions following a pressure control logic, as opposed to the traditional flow control logic typical of hydraulic systems used in off-road vehicles.</p><p dir="ltr">The proposed hydraulic architecture and controller allows for elimination of redundant flow control valves in the state-of-the-art system, which cause excessive throttling losses leading to poor overall energy efficiency. Related work on MPR technology targets construction vehicles, where the MPR solution can allow energy recovery during overrunning loads and better engine management. This study alternatively addresses the case of agricultural applications where functions mostly operate under resistive load conditions with slow dynamics, which offers an opportunity to target throttle losses. The hydraulic architecture design starts with the choice of number of rails, then supply system and pressure selection and control valve set. Next, the controller is proposed. The controller contains two layers. The lower layer directly controls the command tracking, rotational speed, or pressure, for each subsystem. The higher layer, namely the supervisory controller, optimizes the rail pressure levels in real time to guarantee minimum overall throttling loss.</p><p dir="ltr">To prove the effectiveness of the hydraulic system architecture and controller design, a standalone test rig was conceived and used to validate a numerical simulation model of the MPR system and its control strategy. Particular focus is given to the dynamic behavior of the system during the switches of a function between different pressure rails, which needs to ensure reduced oscillations of the flow provided to each hydraulic function. Then, to demonstrate the ability on power saving in real working conditions, reference machines were chosen: a 435 hp hydraulic tractor powering a 16-row planter, for which operating features during typical drive cycles were available to the authors. Simulation models of the two reference machines were built and validated with in field experiments. A full MPR system model on the reference machines was constructed using the validated models. This full model was used to predict the reference tractor and planter hydraulic system performance and power consumption during typical drive cycles. The results show up to 52.4% total power reduction at the pump shaft, corresponding to 113.8% system efficiency gain.</p><p dir="ltr">The dissertation also laid out the planned activities to complete the study. The system controller will be generalized that could suit more equipment in addition to the reference machine in this study. In the meantime, the reference tractor and planter will be modified into the proposed MPR system for field testing. That includes new sensors, controllers, valves, etc. The field test is the final experimental validation for the proposed MPR system on the front of effectiveness and power saving in real working condition.</p>

Tesis por compendio / [EN] Modern data centers integrate a lot of computer and electronic devices. However, some reports state that the mean usage of a typical data center is around 50% of its peak capacity, and the mean usage of each server is between 10% and 50%. A lot of energy is destined to power on computer hardware that most of the time remains idle. Therefore, it would be possible to save energy simply by powering off those parts from the data center that are not actually used, and powering them on again as they are needed. Most data centers have computing clusters that are used for intensive computing, recently evolving towards an on-premises Cloud service model. Despite the use of low consuming components, higher energy savings can be achieved by dynamically adapting the system to the actual workload. The main approach in this case is the usage of energy saving criteria for scheduling the jobs or the virtual machines into the working nodes. The aim is to power off idle servers automatically. But it is necessary to schedule the power management of the servers in order to minimize the impact on the end users and their applications. The objective of this thesis is the elastic and efficient management of cluster infrastructures, with the aim of reducing the costs associated to idle components. This objective is addressed by automating the power management of the working nodes in a computing cluster, and also proactive stimulating the load distribution to achieve idle resources that could be powered off by means of memory overcommitment and live migration of virtual machines. Moreover, this automation is of interest for virtual clusters, as they also suffer from the same problems. While in physical clusters idle working nodes waste energy, in the case of virtual clusters that are built from virtual machines, the idle working nodes can waste money in commercial Clouds or computational resources in an on-premises Cloud. / [ES] En los Centros de Procesos de Datos (CPD) existe una gran concentración de dispositivos informáticos y de equipamiento electrónico. Sin embargo, algunos estudios han mostrado que la utilización media de los CPD está en torno al 50%, y que la utilización media de los servidores se encuentra entre el 10% y el 50%. Estos datos evidencian que existe una gran cantidad de energía destinada a alimentar equipamiento ocioso, y que podríamos conseguir un ahorro energético simplemente apagando los componentes que no se estén utilizando. En muchos CPD suele haber clusters de computadores que se utilizan para computación de altas prestaciones y para la creación de Clouds privados. Si bien se ha tratado de ahorrar energía utilizando componentes de bajo consumo, también es posible conseguirlo adaptando los sistemas a la carga de trabajo en cada momento. En los últimos años han surgido trabajos que investigan la aplicación de criterios energéticos a la hora de seleccionar en qué servidor, de entre los que forman un cluster, se debe ejecutar un trabajo o alojar una máquina virtual. En muchos casos se trata de conseguir equipos ociosos que puedan ser apagados, pero habitualmente se asume que dicho apagado se hace de forma automática, y que los equipos se encienden de nuevo cuando son necesarios. Sin embargo, es necesario hacer una planificación de encendido y apagado de máquinas para minimizar el impacto en el usuario final. En esta tesis nos planteamos la gestión elástica y eficiente de infrastructuras de cálculo tipo cluster, con el objetivo de reducir los costes asociados a los componentes ociosos. Para abordar este problema nos planteamos la automatización del encendido y apagado de máquinas en los clusters, así como la aplicación de técnicas de migración en vivo y de sobreaprovisionamiento de memoria para estimular la obtención de equipos ociosos que puedan ser apagados. Además, esta automatización es de interés para los clusters virtuales, puesto que también sufren el problema de los componentes ociosos, sólo que en este caso están compuestos por, en lugar de equipos físicos que gastan energía, por máquinas virtuales que gastan dinero en un proveedor Cloud comercial o recursos en un Cloud privado. / [CA] En els Centres de Processament de Dades (CPD) hi ha una gran concentració de dispositius informàtics i d'equipament electrònic. No obstant això, alguns estudis han mostrat que la utilització mitjana dels CPD està entorn del 50%, i que la utilització mitjana dels servidors es troba entre el 10% i el 50%. Estes dades evidencien que hi ha una gran quantitat d'energia destinada a alimentar equipament ociós, i que podríem aconseguir un estalvi energètic simplement apagant els components que no s'estiguen utilitzant. En molts CPD sol haver-hi clusters de computadors que s'utilitzen per a computació d'altes prestacions i per a la creació de Clouds privats. Si bé s'ha tractat d'estalviar energia utilitzant components de baix consum, també és possible aconseguir-ho adaptant els sistemes a la càrrega de treball en cada moment. En els últims anys han sorgit treballs que investiguen l'aplicació de criteris energètics a l'hora de seleccionar en quin servidor, d'entre els que formen un cluster, s'ha d'executar un treball o allotjar una màquina virtual. En molts casos es tracta d'aconseguir equips ociosos que puguen ser apagats, però habitualment s'assumix que l'apagat es fa de forma automàtica, i que els equips s'encenen novament quan són necessaris. No obstant això, és necessari fer una planificació d'encesa i apagat de màquines per a minimitzar l'impacte en l'usuari final. En esta tesi ens plantegem la gestió elàstica i eficient d'infrastructuras de càlcul tipus cluster, amb l'objectiu de reduir els costos associats als components ociosos. Per a abordar este problema ens plantegem l'automatització de l'encesa i apagat de màquines en els clusters, així com l'aplicació de tècniques de migració en viu i de sobreaprovisionament de memòria per a estimular l'obtenció d'equips ociosos que puguen ser apagats. A més, esta automatització és d'interés per als clusters virtuals, ja que també patixen el problema dels components ociosos, encara que en este cas estan compostos per, en compte d'equips físics que gasten energia, per màquines virtuals que gasten diners en un proveïdor Cloud comercial o recursos en un Cloud privat. / Alfonso Laguna, CD. (2015). Efficient and elastic management of computing infrastructures [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/57187 / Compendio

The increase in the number of guest houses is applausive for its socio-economic benefits through income generation, job creation and entrepreneurship growth. However, the increase in the number of guest houses is proportional to energy demand. Thus, increase in energy efficient guest houses is more desirable in order to achieve sustainable development. Therefore, the aim of this study was to assess energy efficiency in selected guest houses in Mpumalanga province Through in-depth literature analysis, an energy efficiency framework that builds on and advances the input-output ration and energy saving model was developed. This framework has five indicators which are categorised into financial and nonfinancial, namely: energy quantity, cost, carbon equivalence, services quantity and quality. The framework clarified the differences between energy saving and energy efficiency, while it identifies energy saving and services levels as two parameters or components of energy efficiency. This framework was later implemented and used to assess energy efficiency in eight selected guest houses in Mpumalanga province. To assess energy efficiency using the framework, three standard or common services in guest houses such as indoor lighting, water heating and indoor thermal comfort were assessed for energy saving and compliance with industry standards. The results of the assessment were analysed through descriptive statistical and explanatory methods. Using the framework, the study found that few of the selected guest houses did save energy in one or more of the standards services. However, some methods used in the guest houses were found to be highly costly and resulted in high energy quantity consumption and high carbon footprint. Thus, these methods failed the test for characterisation of energy saving methods. Furthermore, the study found that all indoor lighting services didn’t meet minimum industry standards for indoor lighting of 100lux. All water heating standards were compliant, while indoor thermal comfort standards differed among guest houses. Thus, none of the guest houses met the minimum criteria for characterisation as being energy-efficient. However, different services qualified. Hence, the findings confirm that the energy efficiency framework was effective and reliable in the characterisation of energy-efficient guest houses. This framework builds on and advances the input-output ratio and energy saving models previously used. / Environmental Sciences / PhD (Environmental Management)

The increase in the number of guest houses is applausive for its socio-economic benefits through income generation, job creation and entrepreneurship growth. However, the increase in the number of guest houses is proportional to energy demand. Thus, increase in energy efficient guest houses is more desirable in order to achieve sustainable development. Therefore, the aim of this study was to assess energy efficiency in selected guest houses in Mpumalanga province Through in-depth literature analysis, an energy efficiency framework that builds on and advances the input-output ration and energy saving model was developed. This framework has five indicators which are categorised into financial and nonfinancial, namely: energy quantity, cost, carbon equivalence, services quantity and quality. The framework clarified the differences between energy saving and energy efficiency, while it identifies energy saving and services levels as two parameters or components of energy efficiency. This framework was later implemented and used to assess energy efficiency in eight selected guest houses in Mpumalanga province. To assess energy efficiency using the framework, three standard or common services in guest houses such as indoor lighting, water heating and indoor thermal comfort were assessed for energy saving and compliance with industry standards. The results of the assessment were analysed through descriptive statistical and explanatory methods. Using the framework, the study found that few of the selected guest houses did save energy in one or more of the standards services. However, some methods used in the guest houses were found to be highly costly and resulted in high energy quantity consumption and high carbon footprint. Thus, these methods failed the test for characterisation of energy saving methods. Furthermore, the study found that all indoor lighting services didn’t meet minimum industry standards for indoor lighting of 100lux. All water heating standards were compliant, while indoor thermal comfort standards differed among guest houses. Thus, none of the guest houses met the minimum criteria for characterisation as being energy-efficient. However, different services qualified. Hence, the findings confirm that the energy efficiency framework was effective and reliable in the characterisation of energy-efficient guest houses. This framework builds on and advances the input-output ratio and energy saving models previously used. / Environmental Sciences / PhD (Environmental Management)

The master thesis deals with measures to reduce energy performance of grocery store building. Model of the grocery store is evaluated according to a recommended energy values specified by Czech standards and according to the real values of the actual consumption. These values are compared. Final building analysis for a proposal measures to reduce energy consumption is based on the invoices of the real consumption and on the experimental assignments. Experimental measurements are the Blower door test of the tightness of the building envelope, the measures with the thermovision camera and the measuring of the illumination intensity. The most efficient proposal is extended to the whole model network of the food shops in the Czech Republic.

En stor del av alla bostäder som byggdes mellan 1965-1974 brukar betecknas miljonprogrammet. Efter 40-50 års förbrukning har byggnaderna uppnått sin tekniska livslängd och är därför i behov av renovering. Detta samtidigt som bostadsbristen återstår och energikraven från myndigheter blir allt strängare i syfte att reducera bostadssektorns energianvändning samt för att uppnå ett hållbart samhälle.  Studien är baserad på ett flerbostadshus, Barytongatan 4 som är belägen i Göteborg och som är en del av projektet Kaverös etapp II. I denna studie undersöks energibesparingsåtgärder i samband med våningspåbyggnad och de regelverk som gäller vid om- och tillbyggnad enligt BBR och PBL. I simuleringsprogrammet IDA ICE kunde olika energibesparingsåtgärder studeras. Resultatet från varje enskild åtgärd och en sammansättning av dessa jämfördes därefter med den befintliga byggnadens energideklaration och statisk. Studien är koncentrerad till energisimuleringar och behandlar inga ekonomiska beräkningar. Rapporten fastställer att en våningspåbyggnad, som ökar byggnadsvolymen, är en tillbyggnad samt att allt för stora åtgärder i en befintlig byggnad klassas som en ombyggnad enligt BBR och PBL. Studien berör energibesparingsåtgärder gällande FX-system, FTX-system, balkonginglasning och solpaneler på tak. Resultatet visar att med endast få ingrepp i referenshuset, i enlighet med regelverken, kunde energianvändningen reduceras från 147 kWh/m² till 104,8 kWh/m², vilket motsvarar 28,8 procent. / A majority of houses that were built during the years 1965-1974 is usually referred to as the million program. After 40-50 years of use, the buildings have reached their technical life expectancy and need to be renovated. At the same time, the lack of housing shortage continues to exist while energy requirements from the government are becoming increasingly strict. The government maintains and run a strict policy to reduce the energy consumption of the housing sector in hope of achieving a more sustainable society. The study is based on a multi-family house located in Kaverös, Gothenburg at Barytongatan 4, which is part of the Kaverös Stage II project. In this study, energy conservation measures are investigated in connection with story extension and the applicable regulations when it comes to rebuilding and upgrading in accordance with BBR and PBL. Using the IDA ICE simulation program, different energy conservation measures could be studied. The result of each individual energy conservation measure, and a combination of these were then compared with the existing building's energy declaration and static. This study is limited to energy calculation and no financial calculations are presented The result shows that only a few interventions in the reference housing, according to the regulations BBR and PBL, can affect the energy consumption and reduce it from 147 kWh/m² to 104.8 kWh/m², which corresponds to 28.8 percent.

Thesis (MBA (Business Management))--Stellenbosch University, 2008. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The world today is facing many energy challenges such as power outages experienced internationally and in South Africa. The demand for energy is constantly increasing and is creating environmental problems such as climate change, which is presently a major concern to society. This study is an attempt to establish how energy saving mechanisms such as the elimination of non-essential power can add economic value within the mining industry. This paper examines the effect of non-essential power and how it could assist companies to reduce their energy consumption, aid local power utilities in a crisis and maintain normal production levels. This research report was based on an investigation for power saving opportunities at a mining company during a power crisis. The paper looks at energy efficiency and the barriers to the adoption of energy savings. Companies in general do not have a structured way of addressing non-essential power saving. Companies are not aware of the value such initiatives could have on corporate responsibility and sustainable reporting. The benefits of energy efficiency and nonessential power on the triple bottom line are not clearly documented in literature. When comparing the impact of non-essential power on the triple bottom line, it became obvious that further research is required in order to prove whether it influences the social aspect. The impact of power generation on the global environment has not been clearly calculated and linked to the value of saving power. The literature review highlighted that companies are focusing on long-term initiatives instead of smaller initiatives, which requires less effort. During the investigation of the mining company, it was found that not much effort was made during the design stages in separating the electrical circuits from non-essential and essential power. The author concludes that switching off non-essential power held economic and environmental benefits for the mining company. The author therefore concludes that switching off non-essential power impacts positively on the economic and environmental part of the triple bottom line. It was found that the elimination of non-essential power is easy to implement with minimum investment and effort. Furthermore, the savings from these initiatives could easily be measured to calculate the return on the investment. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Ons kry deesdae al meer te doen met uitdagings soos internasionale en plaaslike kragonderbrekings in die energiebedryf. Die aanvraag vir energie verhoog deurlopend en veroorsaak omgewingsprobleme soos klimaatsveranderinge, wat ‘n groot bekommernis is vir die samelewing. In hierdie studie word gepoog om vas te stel hoe energie besparings meganismes soos die eliminering van nie-noodsaaklike krag ekonomiese waarde kan voeg tot die mynboubedryf. Die uitwerking wat nie-noodsaaklike krag het en hoe dit maatskappye kan help om kragverbruik te verlaag terwyl produksievlakke steeds gehandhaaf word, is hier ondersoek. Plaaslike kragvoorsieners kan ook baat vind hierby in krisistye. Hierdie navorsingsverslag is gebaseer op ‘n ondersoek van krag besparings geleenthede by ‘n mynmaatskappy gedurende ‘n krisistydperk van kragonderbrekings. Die verslag kyk na die doetreffendheid van energieverbruik, asook na die hindernisse wat ondervind word in die inwerkingstelling van energie besparings inisiatiewe. Maatskappye het in die algemeen nie ‘n gestruktureerde metode om die probleem rakende nie-noodsaaklike krag aan te spreek nie. Hulle is nie bewus van die nut wat sulke inisiatiewe kan hê op korporatiewe verantwoordelikheid en volhoubare verslaggewing nie. Die voordele wat energiebesparing en die eliminering van nie-noodsaaklike krag op die ekonomie, gemeenskap en omgewing het, word nie duidelik geboekstaaf nie. Verdere navorsing moet gedoen word om die impak van energiedoeltreffendheid en nie-noodsaaklike krag op die sosiale aspek te bewys. Die uitwerking wat kragopwekking op die globale omgewing het is nog nie bereken en verbind met die waarde daarvan op kragbesparing nie. Die verslag beklemtoon dat maatskappye fokus op langtermyn inisiatiewe in plaas daarvan om te kyk na kleiner inisiatiewe wat minder moeite en tyd sal verg. Die ondersoek by die mynmaatskappy het getoon dat daar nie klem geplaas is op die onderskeiding tussen nie-noodsaaklike en noodsaaklike krag met die installering van die elektriese stroombane tydens die ontwerpstadium nie. Daar is gevind dat die afskakeling van nie-noodsaaklike krag ekonomiese en omgewingsvoordele vir die maatskappy inhou. Daar is tot die slotsom gekom dat die afskakeling van nie-noodsaaklike krag in die algemeen dus ‘n voordelige uitwerking het op die ekonomie en omgewing. Dit is maklik om te implementeer met minimum moeite en belegging. Die besparings deur middel van hierdie inisiatiewe kan ook maklik gemeet word om die opbrengs op die belegging te bereken.

Τα Δίκτυα Αισθητήρων αποτελούνται από ένα μεγάλο αριθμό μικρών αυτόνομων συσκευών, που αλληλεπιδρούν με το άμεσο περιβάλλον τους μέσω αισθητήρων, συλλέγουν δεδομένα και τα προωθούν προς ένας σταθερό, συνήθως, κέντρο ελέγχου, με αναμεταδόσεις στους ενδιάμεσους κόμβους. Η διαδικασία αυτή έχει ως αποτέλεσμα τη μεγάλη κατανάλωση ενέργειας στις συσκευές, ιδιαίτερα σε αυτές που βρίσκονται κοντά στο κέντρο ελέγχου, αφού πρέπει να αναμεταδίδουν και τα δεδομένα που φτάνουν από το υπόλοιπο δίκτυο προς το κέντρο ελέγχου. Για την επίτευξη μιας πιο ισορροπημένης και αποδοτικής διαδικασίας συλλογής δεδομένων, τα τελευταία χρόνια έχει υιοθετηθεί μια νέα προσέγγιση, όπου το κέντρο ελέγχου είναι κινητό. Η βασική ιδέα είναι ότι το κέντρο ελέγχου διαθέτει σημαντικά και εύκολα ανανεώσιμα αποθέματα ενέργειας, επομένως μπορεί να κινείται στην περιοχή όπου έχει αναπτυχθεί το δίκτυο αισθητήρων, αναλαμβάνοντας να συλλέξει τα δεδομένα από τους κόμβους με πολύ μικρό κόστος. Ωστόσο, η μετάδοση των δεδομένων μπορεί να παρουσιάζει σημαντικές καθυστερήσεις. Συλλογή δεδομένων με προσαρμοστικούς χρόνους αναμονής: Στην παρούσα διατριβή αναπτύχθηκαν πρωτόκολλα ελέγχου της κίνησης ενός κέντρου ελέγχου σε δίκτυο αισθητήρων με ανομοιογενή ανάπτυξη των κόμβων αισθητήρων, με στόχο την αποδοτική, ως προς την ενέργεια και τον χρόνο παράδοσης, συλλογή των δεδομένων. Πιο συγκεκριμένα, αρχικά παρουσιάζεται ένα πρωτόκολλο με βάση το οποίο το κέντρο ελέγχου διαιρεί νοητά το δίκτυο σε περιοχές τις οποίες και επισκέπτεται διαδοχικά, σταματώντας σε κάθε περιοχή για ένα συγκεκριμένο χρονικό διάστημα, ώστε να συλλέξει τα δεδομένα. Προτείνουμε δύο τρόπους κίνησης του κέντρου ελέγχου, ντετερμινιστικό και τυχαίο. Στην τυχαία κίνηση, η επιλογή της επόμενης περιοχής την οποία θα επισκεφτεί το κέντρο ελέγχου γίνεται με τυχαίο τρόπο, εισάγοντας όμως ένα όρο μεροληψίας, έτσι ώστε να προτιμούνται περιοχές που έχουν δεχτεί λιγότερες επισκέψεις. Επιπλέον η μέθοδός μας αποφασίζει το χρόνο παύσης σε κάθε περιοχή λαμβάνοντας υπόψιν κάποιες βασικές παραμέτρους του δικτύου, όπως τα αρχικά αποθέματα ενέργειας των κόμβων αισθητήρων και την πυκνότητα της κάθε περιοχής, έτσι ώστε να παραμένει περισσότερο χρόνο σε περιοχές με μεγαλύτερη πυκνότητα, άρα και μεγαλύτερη ποσότητα πληροφορίας. Με τον τρόπο αυτό επιτυγχάνεται η γρήγορη κάλυψη όλου του δικτύου, καθώς επίσης και η δίκαιη εξυπηρέτηση των επιμέρους περιοχών του δικτύου. Προσαρμοστικοί τυχαίοι περίπατοι Στη συνέχεια, μελετάται η χρήση τυχαίων περιπάτων κατά την κίνηση του κέντρου ελέγχου σε δίκτυα αισθητήρων με στόχο την επίτευξη ενός ικανοποιητικού σημείου ισορροπίας μεταξύ κατανάλωσης ενέργειας και καθυστέρησης στην παράδοση των μηνυμάτων. Για την ικανοποίηση του στόχου αυτού, προτείνουμε τρεις νέους τυχαίους περιπάτους, τους α) Τυχαίος Περίπατος με Αδράνεια, κατά τον οποίο το κινούμενο αντικείμενο τείνει να διατηρεί την ίδια κατεύθυνση στην κίνησή του όσο ανακαλύπτει κόμβους αισθητήρων που δεν έχει επισκεφτεί και αλλάζει την κατεύθυνσή του όταν φτάνει σε κόμβους που έχει ξαναεπισκεφτεί, β) Explore-and-Go, κατά τον οποίο το κινούμενο αντικείμενο τείνει να εκτελεί μια Brownian κίνηση γύρω από την περιοχή του όσο υπάρχουν κόμβοι που δεν έχουν δεχτεί επίσκεψη, γ) Curly Random Walk, όπου το κινούμενο αντικείμενο διαπερνάει όλη την περιοχή του δικτύου ξεκινώντας από το κέντρο και επεκτείνοντας την κίνησή του με συνεχόμενες κυκλικές κινήσεις προς τα έξω. Για την εφαρμογή των τυχαίων περιπάτων χρησιμοποιούμε ένα νοητό πλέγμα ώστε να καλύπτουμε την περιοχή του δικτύου αισθητήρων• οι περίπατοι κινούνται πάνω στους κόμβους του πλέγματος. Αν και στις περισσότερες περιπτώσεις οι τυχαίοι περίπατοι μελετώνται σε Gn,p και Grid γράφους, τα δίκτυα αισθητήρων μοντελοποιούνται με μεγαλύτερη ακρίβεια χρησιμοποιώντας το μοντέλο των Random Geometric Graphs (RGG), εφόσον έτσι αναπαρίσταται καλύτερα η χωρική εγγύτητα του δικτύου. Οι παραπάνω τυχαίοι περίπατοι δεν δίνουν τα επιθυμητά αποτελέσματα όταν τρέχουν σε RGG. Έτσι οδηγηθήκαμε στο σχεδιασμό ενός νέου τυχαίου περιπάτου, του γ-Stretched Random Walk, η βασική ιδέα του οποίου είναι να μεροληπτεί υπέρ της επίσκεψης των πιο μακρινών γειτόνων του τρέχοντος κόμβου έτσι ώστε να μειώσει στο ελάχιστο τις επικαλύψεις στις επισκέψεις. Αλγόριθμοι που λαμβάνουν υπόψιν την ηλεκτρομαγνητική ακτινοβολία στο δίκτυο: Εκτός από τη μελέτη της κίνησης του κέντρου ελέγχου σε δίκτυα αισθητήρων, στη διατριβή αυτή παρουσιάζεται μια πρώτη προσπάθεια μελέτης θεμάτων σχετικά με την επίγνωση της εκπομπή ακτινοβολίας σε περιβάλλοντα όπου λειτουργούν πολλαπλά ετερογενή ασύρματα δίκτυα. Ως ακτινοβολία σε ένα σημείου του τρισδιάστατου χώρου καλούμε τη συνολική ποσότητητα ηλεκτρομαγνητικής ακτινοβολίας που δέχεται το σημείο αυτό. Έτσι, καταρχάς μελετάμε σε αναλυτικό επίπεδο την ακτινοβολία σε διάφορες γνωστές τοπολογίες (τυχαίες, πλέγματα) και κατόπιν επικεντρώνουμε το ενδιαφέρον μας στην εύρεση ενός μονοπατιού ελάχιστης ακτινοβολίας το οποίο ακολουθείται από κάποιο άτομο που κινείται στην περιοχή που καλύπτεται από ένα ασύρματο δίκτυο αισθητήρων. Προτείνουμε τρεις ευρετικές μεθόδους για την εύρεση του μονοπατιού καθώς το άτομο κινείται, ενώ υπολογίζουμε και την οffline λύση χρησιμοποιώντας τον αλγόριθμο ελάχιστου μονοπατιού. Κατόπιν, εξετάζουμε το θεμελιώδες πρόβλημα της διάδοσης των δεδομένων σε ασύρματα δίκτυα αισθητήρων, προσπαθώντας τόσο να παραμείνει γρήγορη η διαδικασία παράδοσης των μηνυμάτων, παράλληλα όμως και η συνολική ηλεκτρομαγνητική ακτινοβολία που παράγεται από τις συνεχείς ασύρματες μεταδόσεις να διατηρηθεί σε χαμηλά επίπεδα. Αυτό επιτυγχάνεται αρχικά χρησιμοποιώντας κάποιες άπληστες ευρετικές μεθόδους που όμως λαμβάνουν υπόψιν την ακτινοβολία. Επιπλέον, οι μέθοδοι αυτοί συνδυάζονται με μεθόδους που πραγματοποιούν back-off στο χρόνο, χρησιμοποιώντας τοπικές ιδιότητες του δικτύου (όπως ο αριθμός γειτόνων, η απόσταση από το κέντρο ελέγχου), έτσι ώστε «απλωθεί» κατά κάποιο τρόπο η ακτινοβολία τόσο ως προς το χρόνο αλλά και ως προς το χώρο. Τα προτεινόμενα πρωτόκολλα αξιολογήθηκαν πειραματικά μέσω προσομοίωσης, χρησιμοποιώντας ποικίλες τιμές για βασικές παραμέτρους του δικτύου και σύγκρινοντάς τα με σχετικές υπάρχουσες ευρέως αποδεκτές μεθόδους. Συστημικές Εφαρμογές: Τέλος, στη διατριβή παρουσιάζονται κάποιες συστημικές εφαρμογές ασύρματων δικτύων αισθητήρων σε κτίρια. Συγκεκριμένα, η πρώτη εφαρμογή αναλαμβάνει σε περίπτωση ανίχνευσης φωτιάς, την εύρεση του ελάχιστου μονοπατιού μακριά από το σημείο όπου έγινε η ανίχνευση. Επιπλέον, παρέχει καθοδήγηση στους ενοίκους του κτιρίου (οι οποίοι μοντελοποιούνται από ένα κινούμενο ρομπότ) έτσι ώστε να εγκαταλείψουν με ασφάλεια το κτίριο. Η επόμενη εφαρμογή παρουσιάζει τη δυνατότητα της απρόσκοπτης διασύνδεσης αυτοματισμών έξυπνων κτιρίων, αποτελούμενων από ενσωματωμένα συστήματα, στο διαδίκτυο και την αφαιρετικοποίησή τους ως απλά web services. Η προσέγγιση αυτή έχει στόχο την δημιουργία ενός ευέλικτου, εύκολα κλιμακώσιμου συστήματος που είναι προσβάσιμο και ελεγχόμενο απομακρυσμένα. Η προσέγγιση που ακολουθήθηκε και παρουσιάζεται στην παρούσα διατριβή περιλαμβάνει την ανάπτυξη ενός αριθμού αισθητήρων μέσα σε ένα κτίριο, οι οποίοι αποκτούν IPv6 διεύθυνση ώστε να είναι προσβάσιμοι διαδικτυακά, ενώ παράλληλα διασυνδέονται με ηλεκτρικές συσκευές του κτιρίου για σχηματισμό αυτοματισμών. Τέλος αναπτύχθηκε μία web εφαρμογή για απομακρυσμένη διαχείριση του δικτύου και του κτιρίου γενικότερα. / Wireless Sensor Networks consist of a large number of small, autonomous devices, that are able to interact with their environment by sensing and collaborate to fulfill their tasks, as, usually, a single node is incapable of doing so; and they use wireless communication to enable this collaboration. The collected data is disseminated to a static control point – data sink in the network, using node to node - multi-hop data propagation. However, sensor devices consume significant amounts of energy in addition to increased implementation complexity, since a routing protocol is executed. Also, a point of failure emerges in the area near the control center where nodes relay the data from nodes that are farther away. Recently, a new approach has been developed that shifts the burden from the sensor nodes to the sink. The main idea is that the sink has significant and easily replenishable energy reserves and can move inside the area the sensor network is deployed, in order to acquire the data collected by the sensor nodes at very low energy cost. However, the need to visit all the regions of the network may result in large delivery delays. Data collection with biased stop times: In this work we have developed protocols that control the movement of the sink in wireless sensor networks with non-uniform deployment of the sensor nodes, in order to succeed an efficient (with respect to both energy and latency) data collection. More specifically, we first propose a protocol, where the sink partitions the network area in equal square regions and then performs a network traversal by visiting each area sequentially. Also, it pauses in each area for a certain amount of time, in order to collect the data. Two network traversal methods are proposed, a deterministic and a random one. When the sink moves in a random manner, the selection of the next area to visit is done in a biased random manner depending on the frequency of visits of its neighbor areas. Thus, less frequently visited areas are favored. Moreover, our method locally determines the stop time needed to serve each region with respect to some global network resources, such as the initial energy reserves of the nodes and the density of the region, stopping for a greater time interval at regions with higher density, and hence more traffic load. In this way, we achieve accelerated coverage of the network as well as fairness in the service time of each region. Besides randomized mobility, we also propose an optimized deterministic trajectory without visit overlaps, including direct (one-hop) sensor-to-sink data transmissions only. Adaptive random walks: Afterwards, in order to achieve satisfactory energy-latency trade-offs the use of random walks for the sink' s motion pattern is studied. Towards this direction three new random walks evaluated on a grid overlaying the wireless sensor network are proposed. The first one is the Random Walk with Inertia where the sink tends to keep the same direction as long as it discovers new nodes, while changing direction when it encounters already visited ones. The second one is the Explore-and-Go Random Walk, where as long as there are undiscovered nodes on the nearby sub-regions of the network it tends to make a Brownian-like motion until all this area is covered. When no new sensors are discovered, it performs a more or less straight-line walk in order to move to a different, possibly unvisited area. The last one is the Curly Random Walk where the sink traverses the network area beginning from the center and expanding its traversal to the entire network area with consecutive circular-like moves. In random walk studies the Gn,p and Grid graph models are well established. However, wireless sensor networks are more accurately modeled via Random Geometric Graphs (RGG), as RGG better capture certain characteristics of WSN's such as link existence dependencies of neighbouring nodes due to geometric proximity. The above mentioned random walks do not behave well on this particular graph model, thus a new random walk was defined, the so called γ-stretched random walk. Its basic idea is to favour visiting distant neighbours of the current node towards reducing node overlap. Radiation-aware algorithms: Except for the issue of mobility in wireless sensor networks, in this work we also attempt (probably for the first time from a distributed networking perspective) to investigate the aspect of electromagnetic radiation in modern and future heterogeneous wireless networks. We call “radiation” at a target elementary surface the total amount of electromagnetic quantity (in terms of energy or power density) it is exposed to. Thus, we first evaluate, both mathematically and by simulation, the radiation in well known sensor network topologies (random, grid) and then focus on the minimum radiation path problem of finding low radiation trajectories for a person moving in a sensor network. We propose three online heuristics and then we identify the (offline) optimum path given by the shortest paths' algorithm. Afterwards, we focus on the fundamental problem of efficient data propagation in wireless sensor networks, trying to keep latency low while maintaining at low levels the radiation cumulated by wireless transmissions. We first propose greedy and oblivious routing heuristics that are radiation aware. We then combine them with temporal back-off schemes that use local properties of the network (e.g. number of neighbours, distance from sink) in order to “spread” radiation in a spatio-temporal way. Al the proposed protocols were evaluated via simulation, in diverse network settings and comparatively to related state of the art solutions. Systems and applications: Finally, in this work we present two applications of wireless sensor networks in buildings. More specifically, the first application, in the event of a fire inside a monitored building, uses the information from the deployed sensor network in order to find the shortest safest path away from the emergency and provides navigation guidance to the occupants (modelled by a mobile robot), in order to safely evacuate the building. The second application addresses networked embedded systems enabling the seamless interconnection of smart building automations to the Internet and their abstractions as web services, using the latest technologies based on IPv6, such as 6LOWPAN, COAP and RESTLess Architecture.

Les exigences croissantes sur l'efficacité énergétique des bâtiments, l'évolution du {marché} énergétique, le développement technique récent ainsi que les particularités du poste de chauffage ont fait du MPC le meilleur candidat pour la régulation thermique des bâtiments à occupation intermittente. Cette thèse présente une méthodologie basée sur la commande prédictive distribuée visant un compromis entre l'optimalité, la simplicité et la flexibilité de l'implantation de la solution proposée. Le développement de l'approche est progressif : à partir du cas d'une seule zone, la démarche est ensuite étendue au cas multizone et / ou multisource, avec la prise en compte des couplages thermiques entre les zones adjacentes. Après une formulation quadratique du critère MPC pour mieux satisfaire les objectifs économiques du contrôle, la formulation linéaire est retenue. Pour répartir la charge de calcul, des méthodes de décomposition linéaire (comme Dantzig-Wolfe et Benders) sont employées. L'efficacité des algorithmes distribués proposés est illustrée par diverses simulations. / The increasing requirements on energy efficiency of buildings, the evolution of the energy market, the technical developments and the characteristics of the heating systems made of MPC the best candidate for thermal control of intermittently occupied buildings. This thesis presents a methodology based on distributed model predictive control, aiming a compromise between optimality, on the one hand, and simplicity and flexibility of the implementation of the proposed solution, on the other hand. The development of the approach is gradually. The mono-zone case is initially considered, then the basic ideas of the solution are extended to the multi-zone and / or multi-source case, including the thermal coupling between adjacent zones. Firstly we consider the quadratic formulation of the MPC cost function, then we pass towards a linear criterion, in order to better satisfy the economic control objectives. Thus, linear decomposition methods (such as Dantzig-Wolfe and Benders) represent the mathematical tools used to distribute the computational charge among the local controllers. The efficiency of the distributed algorithms is illustrated by simulations.

O presente trabalho objetiva, a partir de dados coletados dos motores elétricos em regime de trabalho, dar sua contribuição ao estudo de conservação de energia elétrica numa planta industrial. Apresenta-se o motor elétrico trifásico de indução e as diversas questões relativas ao seu uso industrial, para então, demonstrarem os parâmetros elétricos obtidos. Elaborou-se um trabalho de campo, que possibilita à análise da eficiência energética no uso de motores elétricos em uma fábrica de papel e cosméticos. A partir de medidas dos parâmetros elétricos como: corrente e tensão, mais os dados de catálogos do fabricante, chegaram-se aos valores de rendimento, fator de potência e fator de utilização, para diversas condições de carga dos motores. Caso o fator de utilização seja inferior a 75%, um estudo comparativo permitirá as decisões de substituição dos motores super dimensionados. Os dados são usados para as seguintes análises: qual a possível conservação de energia elétrica para cada setor, se os motores fossem substituídos por unidades de alto rendimento?; qual a viabilidade de cada setor realizar as trocas imediatas por motores de alto rendimento?; qual à economia de energia elétrica por setores em (R$/dia), utilizando motores de alto rendimento?; em quanto tempo obteríamos o retorno desse investimento? Alguns recursos de informática foram utilizados nos cálculos realizados. Os resultados indicam que o potencial de conservação de energia elétrica em motores deve ser melhor explorado e de forma mais consciente. / The objective of the present research, from a data set of electric motor collected in a regimen of work, give its contribution to the study on industrial electrical motors’ energy saving. It present the three-phase induction motor, the various issues of its industrial use and the electric parameter set collected are then presented. Field of work was elaborated, wich allowed the analysis of the energy efficiency in the use of electric engines in industry of paper and cosmetics. Given the measurements of current and tension, plus the data from the manufacter’s catalogs, values of efficiency were obtained, power factor and utilization factor, for diverse conditions of engine load. But in case the utilization factor is less than 75%, a comparative study allowed the decisions of substitution of the poorly dimensioned engines. The data are analyzed in ways: 1)What would be the energy save to each sector, if motors were changed for high efficient units? 2)What would be the viable to each sector to replace immediately the existing motors for high efficient? 3)What would be the energy save to each sector in (R$/day), using high efficient motors? 4)How much time would be the return of the investiment?. Some resources of computer technology were used in the calculations. The results showing the electric energy saving potential in motor would be better use to advantage and more conscientions form.