Mining contributes significantly to the economic development of South Africa, contributes to pollution and other negative environmental impacts. Section 24 of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 (Constitution) places a duty on government to, amongst others adopt legislative measures to protect the environment, prevent pollution and degradation, and secure sustainable development, while promoting justifiable economic and social development. Government responded with the introduction of new acts or the amendment of existing acts most of which require an authorisation process as a “command and control” tool to enforce environmental governance within the mining sector. The abovementioned legislative development will be discussed from a historical perspective up to the current developments. The research aims to attempt to align the authorisation process pertaining to mining. The mining life cycle will be illustrated and the authorisation requirements for each of the mining life cycle processes will be discussed alongside its challenges such as fragmentation, lack of capacity in government sectors, lack of communication and cooperative governance within government. The lack of focus within the authorisation requirements will be deliberated. To avoid the negative consequences of the current authorisation processes such as duplication, unnecessary time delays and the stifling of economic growth, an investigation into how the various fragmented authorisation processes can be aligned into a single streamlined authorisation process which will contribute to the sustainable development within South Africa will be made. / MPhil (Environmental Law and Governance), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2013

Le Fonds pour l’environnement mondial (FEM) est la plus importante source individuelle de financement aux projets et programmes destinés à promouvoir des bénéfices environnementaux globaux dans les pays en voie de développement et en transition. L’objectif de la thèse est d’examiner le rôle du FEM comme un outil de financement des conventions environnementales et du développement soutenable, en soulignant sa contribution à la mise en œuvre du droit international de l’environnement et au débat concernant la gouvernance environnementale internationale. / The Global Environment Facility (GEF) is the most important single source of finance for projects and programs designed to promote global environmental benefits in developing countries and transition countries. The thesis aims at examining the role played by the GEF as a tool for financing environmental conventions and sustainable development, emphasizing its contribution to the enforcement of international environmental law and to the debate concerning international environmental governance.

La problématique générale abordée dans cette thèse est la suivante : Peut-on continuer à libéraliser les échanges au niveau mondial sans simultanément faire respecter les règles de protection de l’environnement ?L’hypothèse d’une gouvernance mondiale pour un développement du durable du commerce et de l’environnement est-t-elle possible ?Ce débat relève d’une question fondamentale qui, historiquement, a souvent été abordée mais sans être jamaisréglée. Aujourd’hui, dans le contexte de crise actuelle et du processus de globalisation, il demeure d’une brûlante actualité.L’étude des relations du commerce et de l’environnement suscite un certain nombre d’interrogations, les interactions qui en découlent sont-elles compatibles.Les liens qui unissent l’économie et l’environnement sont désormais évidents, les effets de libération des échanges ont une incidence non négligeable sur l’environnement et inversement la protection de l’environnement influe nécessairement sur la nature de ces échanges.Les organisations et les institutions ayant pour objectif la protection de l’environnement sont- elles réellement efficaces ? Ne sont-elles pas trop éparpillées ? Ne manquent- elles pas de cohérence ?Les législations nationales et internationales sont- elles suffisantes ? Les dispositions sont-elles appliquées ?Dans un contexte ultra libéral, le phénomène de dérégularisation, semble favoriser l’épanouissement des activités économiques et financières au détriment d’un renforcement des mesures environnementales.Devant un tel constat, il semble de plus en plus opportun de parvenir à un rééquilibrage de la gouvernance mondiale en faveur de l’environnement. Quelles pourraient être, le cas échéant, les mesures à mettre en œuvre, les voies de conciliation envisageables pour harmoniser ces relations en apparence conflictuelles.Quelle est la position du droit international relatif à la protection de l’environnement face à celui du commerce.Il apparaît nécessaire d’envisager de combiner les règles du droit international du commerce fondées sur le dogme du libre échange et les impératifs vitaux du droit de la protection de l’environnement dans un cadre de développement durable.Doit-on envisager de créer pour cela une nouvelle enceinte internationale spécialisée qui régirait l’environnement mondial ? Ou au contraire renforcer une Organisation existante en la dotant d’une double compétence qui élaborerait un nouveau droit international du développement durable en édictant un corps de règles commerciales et environnementales unifiées et cohérentes ; (Une sorte d’international law of sustainable development) ?La transformation du système commercial multilatéral, le renforcement et le verdissement de ses structures apparaîsent comme des solutions possibles, pour parvenir à faire coexister les préoccupations environnementales et les exigences commerciales au sein d’un même cadre.Une autre gouvernance plus juste, plus équilibrée est possible, une mise en cohérence d’un ordre juridique environnemental et économique mondial n’est pas une utopie.Ce défi ambitieux représente probablement une occasion de juger de la nécessaire combinaison du droit de l’environnement et du commerce international. / Is the hypothesis of a more balanced global governance for the sustainable development ofboth trade and environment plausible?Are the institutions devoted to environmental protection really efficient?Are they not too scattered to be effective? Don’t they lack some kind of coherence?Can institutions in charge of trade development enforce environmental rules? Do they havethe means to do so?In an ultra-free market context the phenomenon of deregulation seems to favor thedevelopment of economic and financial activity at the expense of a strengthening ofenvironmental measures.It seems necessary to consider reconciling the rules of free trade-based international trade lawand the vital requirements of environmental protection law within the scope of sustainabledevelopment.Should then one contemplate creating a new specialized international body in charge ofgoverning the global environment? Or on the contrary, should one strengthen an alreadyexisting organization by granting it a dual competency , responsible for working out a newinternational sustainable development law by enacting a set of unified and coherent trade andenvironmental rules; ( A kind of international sustainable development law).The transformation of the multilateral system, the strengthening and the greening of itsstructures appear as possible solutions to handle both environmental concerns andcommercial requirements.This ambitious challenge of a fairer, more balanced global governance probably provides anopportunity to see how necessary it is to combine environmental law and international tradelaw; this coherence in global environmental and economic law seems possible.

L’Organisation des Nations Unies (ONU) – une organisation unique à vocation universelle possédant sa propre personnalité juridique contrairement aux autres organisations internationales soumises, elles, au droit international, et disposant du pouvoir de définir ses relations avec les tiers ou parties prenantes, agit dans le cadre d’un système de gouvernance à deux niveaux. Ce système est composé d’une part de mécanismes de « gouvernance externe » (pour une coordination entre différents acteurs comme les États, les Ministères, les autres institutions internationales, les entreprises et les Organisations non gouvernementales) et d’autre part de dispositifs de « gouvernement interne » (cf. Bouquin & Kuszla, 2014), qui encadrent les différents organes de l’ONU. L’articulation de ces deux formes de gouvernance doit assurer la mise en œuvre des politiques internationales. Ces politiques prennent la forme de plans ou programmes d’action dans différents domaines, en particulier dans le domaine environnemental. Même si cet axe ne fait pas partie des missions historiques de l’ONU comme la paix et la sécurité internationale, il a pris de l’importance à partir de 1972 avec la création du Programme des Nations Unies pour l’environnement – PNUE. Bien que ses missions aient évolué, le PNUE n’a jamais été aussi faible. L'analyse des configurations de contrôle du PNUE nécessite une approche sociologique prenant en compte les interactions entre les acteurs et la structure (théorie de la structuration et des métaorganisations). La comparaison de deux études de cas mit au jour trois configurations de contrôle des organisations à vocation universelle et une grille d’analyse des facteurs à prendre en compte pour assurer une articulation cohérente de leurs deux formes de gouvernance. / The United Nations (UN) – an atypical organization with its own legal personality unlike other international organizations, has the power to define its relationships with all its stakeholders and is acting within a system of governance at two levels: one of "external governance" (for coordination between different actors such as governments, other international institutions, international funds, businesses and non-governmental organizations) and one of internal governance (Bouquin, Kuszla, 2014) which frames the various UN bodies. The articulation of those two forms of governance ensures the implementation of international policies at the national level. These policies take the form of plans or programs of action in various fields, especially in the environmental field. Although this axis is not part of the historic UN missions such as peace and international security, it gradually took on some importance in 1972 with the establishment of the United Nations Environment Programme - UNEP. Although its missions and its organizational control model have progressively changed, UNEP’s governance has never been that weak. Analysis of UNEP’s control configurations requires a sociological approach that captures the interactions between actors and structure (structuration and metaorganizations theory). The comparison of two case studies carried out in a situation of participant observation revealed three universal’s organizational control configurations and a grid of factors to be considered in order a coherent articulation of these organizations’ two forms of governance.

The use of renewable energy as part of the solution for stabilising global warming has been promoted in industrialised countries for the past three decades. In the last ten years, China, a non-democratic and less-developed state, has implemented non-hydro alternative energy sources through top-down, technology-oriented measures and expanded its renewable energy capacity with unprecedented speed and breadth. This phenomenon seems to contradict to the principle of orthodox environmental governance, in which stakeholder participation is deemed as necessary condition for effective policy outcomes. Given that little research has been conducted on environmental politics in an authoritarian context, I first set out to explore the role of the Chinese state in enabling transformation of the renewable energy sector and to understand the ways in which policy elites seek to introduce developmental state and ecological modernisation strategy in the policy area. Second, by adopting principal-agent theory, I explicate how the governance mechanisms have been deployed and how challenges of the expansion of the sector in the governance system with a large territory have being mitigated. Based upon news reports, policy documents, and interviews with 32 provincial officials, business leaders, academic researchers, and NGO practitioners in two subnational governments, I argue that the renewable energy development in China is governed through a hybrid mode of environmental policy model that uses, upon the existing developmental state regime, ecological modernisation as a policy paradigm, which is partially incorporated in the process. Ultimately, I examine in this thesis the possibility of an alternative form of environmental governance in which renewable energy can be diffused in a less-participatory manner, with more direct controls and target-oriented state intervention measures. This thesis challenges the orthodox assumption that the inclusive mode of governance are the only capable form of environmental governance that reaches desired policy outcomes of renewable energy deployment.

The study focuses on the role of government in the provision of environmental programmes, events and campaigns. South Africa is a signatory to a number of environmental treaties and protocols hence it is expected to celebrate environmental days annually, such as World Wetland Day, National Water Week, World Environmental Week, Arbor Day and many more. The study considered the community of Masibekela, a remote rural village in Mpumalanga Province under the Nkomazi Local Municipality as its study area. Both qualitative and quantitative methods were applied to gather the necessary data from the four sets of respondents to a questionnaire survey, namely: the Sector Manager of Tonga Environmental Centre, traditional leadership and community members, learners and educators. The study discovered that the provision of environmental programmes, events and campaigns to the study area by the government leaves much to be desired. It lays bare that the community members of Masibekela are neglected environmentally by the government as compared to schools. The study also revealed contrasting features both in the knowledge and celebration of some of the environmental days by both the schools (learners and educators) and the general community members. A high percentage of learners and educators expressed their knowledge and celebration of environmental days since they are frequently visited by government officials to promote environmental programmes, events and campaigns geared towards environmental education and awareness but the same cannot be said about the traditional leaders and community members. It is recommended, among other things, that the Tonga Environmental Centre, as a custodian of provision of environmental programmes, events and campaigns, should be capacitated both in terms of human resources and strategic planning so as to meet its expectations. It is also recommended vi that more funding for bursaries for environmental studies for the youth should be made available and also more capital should be injected into the actual promotion of environmental programmes, events and campaigns. The National Department of Education in collaboration with the Department of Environmental Affairs should consider including Environmental Education in the school curriculum as a compulsory subject in all grades / Geography / M. A. (Geography)

Submitted by Rosina Valeria Lanzellotti Mattiussi Teixeira (rosina.teixeira@unisantos.br) on 2019-01-23T11:49:13Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Josieni Pereira de Barros.pdf: 1175399 bytes, checksum: b1b307c03889b30b3cd67f95cd45fc77 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2019-01-23T11:49:13Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Josieni Pereira de Barros.pdf: 1175399 bytes, checksum: b1b307c03889b30b3cd67f95cd45fc77 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2018-09-20 / A presente tese propõe-se a apresentar a tributação ambiental, pautada na extrafiscalidade, como uma fundamental política pública de fomento ao desenvolvimento sustentável, de modo a estimular outros atores não estatais na cooperação para a gestão da sustentabilidade. Pretende-se, com esta abordagem, demonstrar a possibilidade de atuação da política fiscal ambiental e a instituição de ecotributos como uma ação global e local para a implementação de pontuais Objetivos do Desenvolvimento Sustentável (ODS), especialmente os objetivos 11 e 12. Para atingir tal propósito, demonstrou-se a participação dos atores subnacionais como mecanismo da governança ambiental global. A pesquisa analisou o efeito dessa participação na solução de problemas comuns, crescentes na era globalizada e no mundo pós-moderno, onde os conceitos tradicionais do direito internacional são insuficientes para a tratativa dos problemas líquidos que permeiam a atualidade. Verificou-se essa mudança de paradigma pelo viés da tributação ambiental e da cooperação internacional local, estabelecendo a criação de ecotributos como instrumento essencial para fomento da produção, do consumo e das cidades sustentáveis. / The present thesis aims to present environmental taxation, based on extrafiscality, as a fundamental public policy to promote sustainable development, in order to stimulate other non-state actors to cooperate towards sustainable management. This approach sets out to demonstrate the viability of environmental fiscal policy and the creation of greentaxes as global and local action to implement specific Sustainable Development Goals (SDG), especially goals 11 and 12. To this end, this study establishes the participation of subnational actors as a mechanism for global environmental governance. The study examined the effect of this participation in solving common problems, increased in the globalized era and in the postmodern world, where traditional concepts of international law have proved insufficient to deal with liquid problems. This change of paradigm was observed through environmental taxation and local international cooperation, establishing the creation of greentaxes as a fundamental instrument to promote production, consumption and sustainable cities.

Sous l’injonction internationale à la participation, de nouvelles modalités de gouvernance sont apparues, invitant de nouveaux acteurs dans la gestion des aires naturelles protégées et remodelant les politiques de conservation à l’échelle internationale comme nationale.Le Mexique n’est pas exempt de ces remises en question et ses nouvelles orientations stratégiques pour la gestion des aires naturelles protégées se concentrent désormais sur la «gouvernance ». De nouveaux programmes d’appui aux communautés ont ainsi été développés pour les inciter à participer à la gestion des ressources naturelles communes. Pour contourner les restrictions liées au statut de Parc National, une vingtaine d’aires naturelles protégées ont ou vont ainsi changer de statut d’ici 2018. Le Parc National Nevado de Toluca représente l’un des premiers espaces protégés à avoir été déclassifié au statut d’Aire de Protection de la Faune et de la Flore, afin de permettre aux 54 communautés agraires réparties sur le territoire de mettre en place des projets productifs et participer in fine à la conservation de l’espace protégé. Mêlant action publique, modèles de gestion locale et dynamiques écologiques, le Nevado de Toluca constitue ainsi un laboratoire in situ qui permet de comprendre comment les notions de gouvernance environnementale et de participation mises en avant dans les programmes gouvernementaux se traduisent sur le terrain. Ce laboratoire permet d’évaluer plus spécifiquement comment les instruments de gestion participative, tels que la gestion forestière communautaire et les paiements pour services environnementaux ont modifié les pratiques locales de gestion et in fine, les dynamiques écologiques forestières. Puis, l’analyse des processus participatifs établis dans le cadre du changement de catégorie et de l’élaboration du plan de gestion permet de mieux comprendre l’appropriation de l’injonction internationale à la participation par le gouvernement mexicain ainsi que ses effets, attendus ou non, sur la gouvernance de l’aire naturelle protégée. Les paiements pour services environnementaux présentés généralement comme une stratégie de conservation plus efficiente que les projets intégrés, semblent être, sur le Nevado de Toluca, des instruments moins performants socialement et écologiquement que la gestion forestière communautaire. Les instruments de gestion participative ont néanmoins en commun de reproduire les injustices sociales du système agraire mexicain. Par ailleurs, malgré des processus participatifs limités, la recatégorisation a conduit à des controverses, alliances et innovations sociotechniques, qui reconfigurent les modalités de gouvernance du territoire. Si le gouvernement ne cède pas pour autant son pouvoir de décision, des arrangements informels viennent s’insérer dans cette nouvelle configuration et constituent des formes de contre-pouvoirs. L’institutionnalisation de la participation ne conduit pas à l’éradication des conflits et à la production d’un consensus. Au contraire, elle met en lumière la dimension agonistique des politiques de conservation. / Under the international context of supporting participation for the co-management of natural resources, new governance arrangements have emerged, inviting new actors in the management of natural protected areas and reshaping conservation policies. Mexico has not been exempted from this process with the new strategic directions for protected natural areas having focused on "governance". New community support programs have been developed to encourage local forest communities to participate in the management of their natural resources. To bypass the restrictions related to the status of a National Park, twenty Mexican natural protected areas have changed or are going to change of status by 2018. The Nevado de Toluca National Park is one of the first protected areas to have been declassified to the status of Wildlife and Flora Area Protection, to allow the 54 agrarian communities established in the territory to implement productive projects and ultimately participate in the conservation of the protected area.Combining public action, local management models and ecological dynamics, the Nevado de Toluca constitutes a laboratory for understanding how the concepts of environmental governance and participation, promoted in government programs, are being applied on the field. This empirical laboratory allows for the evaluation of how participatory management instruments, such as community forest management and payment for environmental services, have modified local management practices and, ultimately, forest ecosystems. Moreover, the analysis of participatory processes, a key part in the process of change in the protection category of the protected natural area, allows us to better understand the appropriation of international premises into effective participation by mechanisms held by the Mexican government. These mechanisms will, in turn, potentially have an effect on the governance of the protected natural area. Payments for environmental services, generally presented as a more efficient conservation strategy than integrated conservation and development projects, seem to be on the Nevado de Toluca, less socially and environmentally efficient than community forest management. However, these two participatory management instruments have reproduced the social injustices of the Mexican agrarian system. Besides, despite limited participatory processes, the reclassification resulted in controversies, alliances and socio-technical innovations that are reshaping the governance of the territory. As a response to the non-transfer of decision-making power by the government, informal arrangements are appearing as a new governance configuration and as a form of countervailing-power. The institutionalization of participation has not led to the eradication of conflict or to a consensus. Instead, it highlights the agonistic dimension of conservation policies.

Este estudo analisa como mudanças institucionais no mercado da soja brasileiro proporcionam as condições para negociação de um sistema de governança ambiental para a produção na Amazônia. Em junho de 2006, as principais agroindústrias anunciaram um acordo inédito parao setor agrícola do país: Elas se comprometeram a não comercializa a colheita produzidas em novas áreas desmatadas da floresta amazônica. Esse acordo ficou conhecido como a Moratória da Sója e deu origem a um sistema de segurança multistakeholders para conter o avanço da produção sobre a floresta. O comportamento dos atores ligados à agroindústria da soja é a face mais visível de um fenômeno social que também tem seus componetes econômicos, culturais e políticos. O arranjo que surgiu no campo da soja faz parte de um movimento que se espalha por vários mercados contemporâneos, onde cada vez mais as organizações, em vez de esperar pelo Estado antecipam-se criando sistemas voluntários de gestão ambiental, por meio de protocolos e acordos voltados a reduzir os impactos ambientais negativos daquilo que fazem. A decisão de decretar a moratória e a consequente criação de um comitê de governança ambiental é analisada sob uma perspectiva histórica, na qual grupos dominantes e desafientes constantemente disputam nos campos sociais a definição das instituições que dão estabilidade aos mercados. A partir de novas vertentes teóricas da nova sociologia econômica e da teoria das organizações, as ações tomadas pela agroindústria são vistas não apenas como escolha racional a partir dos recursos internos das empresas e dos sinais do mercado, mas como resposta a pressão externa por legitimidade. / This study focus on how institutional changes in the soybean market generated conditions to setting an environmental governance system for production in the Amazon region. On June 2006, the main soybean and trading companies working in Brazil reached an unprecedented agreement on not to trade soy grown in newly deforested area in the Amazon. The agreement was named Soybean Moratorium in the Amazon and led to the creation of the Soya Working Group, a multistakeholder arrangement to curb production from spreading throughout the forest. The soybean industry actors behavior is part of a broader complex social phenomenon, which also includes economic, cultural and political components. The new institutional arrangement in the soybean organizational field is connected to a broader move spreading on several contemporary markets, in which organizations, instead of waiting for State regulations, adopt initiatives, such as voluntary systems of environmental management through alliances, agreements and certifications systems, to control the negative impacts of their activities. The new attitudes are explained from a historical perspective, in which dominant groups and their challengers dispute, within social arenas, the definition of institutions that stabilize the organizational field. Using the theoretical approaches of economic sociology and sociology of organizations, the action of the soybean industry is seen not only as rational choices based on the company resources and market signals, but as answers to external pressures for legitimacy

Este estudo analisa como mudanças institucionais no mercado da soja brasileiro proporcionam as condições para negociação de um sistema de governança ambiental para a produção na Amazônia. Em junho de 2006, as principais agroindústrias anunciaram um acordo inédito parao setor agrícola do país: Elas se comprometeram a não comercializa a colheita produzidas em novas áreas desmatadas da floresta amazônica. Esse acordo ficou conhecido como a Moratória da Sója e deu origem a um sistema de segurança multistakeholders para conter o avanço da produção sobre a floresta. O comportamento dos atores ligados à agroindústria da soja é a face mais visível de um fenômeno social que também tem seus componetes econômicos, culturais e políticos. O arranjo que surgiu no campo da soja faz parte de um movimento que se espalha por vários mercados contemporâneos, onde cada vez mais as organizações, em vez de esperar pelo Estado antecipam-se criando sistemas voluntários de gestão ambiental, por meio de protocolos e acordos voltados a reduzir os impactos ambientais negativos daquilo que fazem. A decisão de decretar a moratória e a consequente criação de um comitê de governança ambiental é analisada sob uma perspectiva histórica, na qual grupos dominantes e desafientes constantemente disputam nos campos sociais a definição das instituições que dão estabilidade aos mercados. A partir de novas vertentes teóricas da nova sociologia econômica e da teoria das organizações, as ações tomadas pela agroindústria são vistas não apenas como escolha racional a partir dos recursos internos das empresas e dos sinais do mercado, mas como resposta a pressão externa por legitimidade. / This study focus on how institutional changes in the soybean market generated conditions to setting an environmental governance system for production in the Amazon region. On June 2006, the main soybean and trading companies working in Brazil reached an unprecedented agreement on not to trade soy grown in newly deforested area in the Amazon. The agreement was named Soybean Moratorium in the Amazon and led to the creation of the Soya Working Group, a multistakeholder arrangement to curb production from spreading throughout the forest. The soybean industry actors behavior is part of a broader complex social phenomenon, which also includes economic, cultural and political components. The new institutional arrangement in the soybean organizational field is connected to a broader move spreading on several contemporary markets, in which organizations, instead of waiting for State regulations, adopt initiatives, such as voluntary systems of environmental management through alliances, agreements and certifications systems, to control the negative impacts of their activities. The new attitudes are explained from a historical perspective, in which dominant groups and their challengers dispute, within social arenas, the definition of institutions that stabilize the organizational field. Using the theoretical approaches of economic sociology and sociology of organizations, the action of the soybean industry is seen not only as rational choices based on the company resources and market signals, but as answers to external pressures for legitimacy