En 1914-1918, les faits apportèrent un démenti cinglant aux prévisions. Au lieu d’une guerre courte, décidée par les seules forces terrestres en une ou deux batailles, les belligérants s’enlisèrent dans une lutte longue et coûteuse que les Alliés finirent par remporter en étranglant l’économie de l’Allemagne et en usant ses forces au moyen d’une succession de batailles partielles. Le cours inattendu que prirent les événements amène à s’interroger sur les représentations de la guerre de cette époque, sur la manière dont elles influencèrent les opérations et réciproquement, ainsi que sur le rôle du haut commandement dans ces relations. Une telle approche des opérations est d’autant plus justifiée que le sujet est méconnu, que la guerre est un domaine où le décalage entre réalité et représentations est très marqué, et que ceci est particulièrement vrai de la Grande Guerre. La question se pose donc de savoir si la difficile évolution des représentations, dans un sens conforme à une conduite des opérations efficace, s’est faite malgré le haut commandement, sous la pression des événements, ou s’il n’y a pas finalement concouru. L’impression prévaut qu’il a longtemps été à leur remorque et qu’il a fallu des échecs retentissants et l’action du pouvoir politique pour qu’il soit renouvelé, avec ses représentations. Cette impression est cependant trompeuse car elle repose sur une confusion entre le haut commandement et le GQG qui n’en était qu’une composante. Mis fréquemment à l’écart par ce dernier, les généraux appartenant au haut commandement contribuèrent à l’évolution de la situation à travers l’action de certains d’entre eux, même s’ils utilisèrent souvent des voies détournées / During WW1, the events bring a severe denial to the previsions. Instead of the short war won by the sole Land forces in one or two battles, the opponents bogged down in a long and costly struggle, which the Allies won eventually in choking the German economy and by the mean of successive battles of attrition.This unexpected course of events raises questions about the representations of war prevailing at this time, about the way they influenced the operations and conversely about the role of the French High Command in those relations. Studying military operations under this point of view is all the more relevant that this topic remains little known and that war is an activity where the discrepancy between reality and representations is most important. This discrepancy increased dramatically within WW1. The question is therefore to know whether the difficult evolution of war representations, in a sense compliant with the efficient conduct of operations occurred despite the High Command, under the pressure of events, or if he did not eventually concur in this evolution. The main impression is that the High Command was constantly trailing behind and that only resounding failures and the resulting decisions of the political authority caused the replacements in the staff required to change the representations. In fact, those impressions are misleading as far as they are based on a confusion between French High Command and French General HQ (GQG), which was only a component of High Command. Often put aside by the GQG, the generals belonging to the high command contributed in the evolution of this situation, through some of them, even if they did it in bypassing hierarchy

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This thesis explores representations of the First World War in English theatre, Theatre in Education (TIE), and Living History between 2014 and 2015. By employing an interdisciplinary approach it evaluates these performance genres in relation to responses sought from Key Stage 3 History pupils. The beginning of the centenary created a cultural outpouring and provided opportunities for secondary schools to include field trips and creative learning about the war. Examination of this commemorative period is contextualised by examining pupils’ interaction with cultural works since 1914, showing that the centenary moment stemmed from a tradition of creatively remembering and teaching the conflict. This perspective highlights long-standing complexities in the relationship between creative practitioners, teachers and education authorities. It also confronts the divide that has grown between some creative practitioners and revisionist historians of the First World War. Revisionist historians’ reassessment of the conduct and necessity of the war has led some to harshly judge cultural works, such as performances, for misleading audiences. Yet little research has been conducted into twenty-first century productions about the war and their reception by school audiences. An investigation of these performances problematizes scholarly notions about how and who has the authority to communicate the First World War to the next generation. Whilst the providers, gatekeepers, and critics of learning through performance are of central consideration, this thesis also values the pupil’s voice. Ten Key Stage 3 cohorts are used as case studies, providing a snapshot of the creative activities and field trips employed by schools in 2014 and 2015. Interviews and questionnaires provide pupils’ feedback on what they thought and how they felt about studying history through performance. Observations of History lessons and performances also remove the debate from the hypothetical to the realities of history teaching. They reveal that pupils’ cultural backgrounds, schooling, and exposure to cultural works shaped their responses to performances about the First World War. Pupils also assigned the performances varying degrees of historical authority, some viewed them as merely entertainment, others as educational sources and several as a mixture of the two. Performances brought immediacy and life to the historical topic and provoked an empathetic response from many pupils. Yet some struggled with the symbolism of theatre and others feared the participation that came with TIE and Living History. Consequently, this thesis explores pupil’s critical, personal and emotional engagement with performances, raising questions about what criteria should be used to evaluate the success of such non-formal learning on the war.

During the Great War, the horse was essential to military efficiency. Horses hauled artillery guns, transported vital supplies and ammunition, and carried men into battle. The military horse was, in fact, a weapon. Many thousands of horses were purchased and supplied to the British Expeditionary Force at great expense, because without them an Army could not function. Although the British Army was the most modern of all the belligerent forces during the Great War, the horse was nevertheless favoured because of its reliability and versatility. For example, horses coped much better than motor vehicles where the going was difficult. It was horse-power that ensured the Army’s lines-of-communication were maintained. Indeed, without an adequate supply of horses it is probable that the British Army would not have achieved victory in 1918. However, the military horse was also a weapon which quickly broke down when it was not properly maintained. The British Army had learned this to its cost during the Boer War, when more horses had been killed by bad management than by enemy action. Good horse management in the field depended upon the soldier. It was essential that he had received adequate training, and it was also essential that he take responsibility for his horse’s well-being. During the Great War, all soldiers given ‘ownership’ of a horse were taught to put their horse’s needs before their own, and to always think first of their horse. They were taught to see their horse in the same way as an infantryman would his rifle; as something he may have cause to rely upon and which it was therefore in his best interests to look after. The soldier-horse relationship developed once the soldier’s care became one of sympathetic consideration. Soldiers and their horses spent most of their lives together when on active service, and it was this close proximity which helped to bond them into a unit. Many soldiers came to see their horses as comrades; they named them, and went to great lengths to protect their horses from harm. From the Army’s perspective, the soldier-horse relationship ensured that an expensive military asset was properly maintained. At home, portrayals of the soldier-horse relationship extended this vital contribution to the war effort beyond the battlefield. For example, images and stories that told of the soldier’s kindness to his horse bolstered a positive illusion the British had of themselves as a people capable of both strength and compassion. Images of the soldier-horse relationship played an important part in helping the British people to imagine war. They also provided much-needed comfort and reassurance when friends and loved ones were in danger. Importantly, by studying these portrayals dispassionately, we find that they were never entire flights of fancy, and often bore more than a passing resemblance to the soldier’s actual experience. Indeed, it becomes possible to question whether sense and sentimentality ever did entirely part company in the British imagination. Like their flesh and blood inspiration, portrayals of the soldier-horse relationship have not received the attention they merit. By rectifying this oversight, this thesis not only contributes to study of the horse-human relationship, but also to our knowledge of the Great War. Not least, because we achieve a better appreciation of what it was like to live in the War’s shadow.

L’occupation de l’Égypte en 1882 marque le début d’une longue période pendant laquelle l’Angleterre vas enter en permanence de conserver sa présence militaire et de justifier, par la même occasion, sa politique devant l’Europe et l’Égypte. L’Angleterre n’a pas cessé d’insister sur le caractère temporaire de cette occupation; en effet, il était impossible de se retirer de l’Égypte tant que le canal de Suez représentait la voie maritime la plus courte vers les colonies indiennes. Au cours de cette entreprise colonial, le rôle de la presse a été significatif, contribuant à la diffusion accélérée des nouvelles provenant de l’empire britannique. Ainsi notre étude se penche sur le rôle que la presse a pu jouer en vue de soutenirL’empire et de conforter occupation. Cette recherche est centrée sur le quotidien britannique The Times, journal connu pour son vaste réseau de correspondants dans le monde et notamment en Égypte. Par l’étude des articles publiés pendant la période de l’occupation, à partir du bombardement d’Alexandrie jusqu’à la crise du canal de Suez, nous identifierons et analyserons les différentes stratégies du Times pour justifier et consolider la présence de l’Angleterre en Égypte. Nous examinerons l’évolution du Times vis-à-vis des politiques suivies en Égypte par le gouvernement britannique. Notre objectif est, d’une part, de montrer l’influence du Times sur les décisions politiques prises par le gouvernement et d’autre part, de montrer que la ligne éditoriale du journal a pu aussi être soumise à l’impact des événements qui ont jalonné les relations entre la Grande Bretagne et l’ Égypte. / This research is about The Times newspaper’s coverage of the situation in Egypt during the British occupation, that is from1882 to 1956. The historical context extends from a period when the Empire was at its apogee to its nadir. It is an attempt to suggest a new reading of the events that shaped the British policy in Egypt through the press, more precisely The Times. The objective is to determine the reactions of The Times to the evolution of the “Egyptian Question” and eventually the British policy. It will focus the imperial westward expansion in parallel with the evolution of journalism. The aim is also to approach the press from another angle, that of a press that may have an impact on, and be impacted by, political events. In other words, this study is an attempt to provide some key elements to answer the following questions: What was the role of The Times during the British occupation of Egypt? Can we consider an imperial commitment on the part of The Times? How did the editorial policy of The Times influence political decisions? What was the importance given to the “Thunderer” by policy makers? Finally, can we consider The Times as a means of conquest, a means of criticism or just a purveyor of news? We hope that this research will shed some light on the role of The Times in the construction and the maintaining of the British empire in Egypt.

Made available in DSpace on 2015-05-14T12:23:20Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 arquivototal.pdf: 728476 bytes, checksum: 13adb5493116b5cb3d2115266d73c83a (MD5) Previous issue date: 2008-06-27 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - CAPES / This dissertation thesis reflects upon the Great War (1914 1918), from the Historiography, analyzing the romances All Quiet on the Western Front, written by Erich Maria Remarque and A Farewell to Arms, written by Ernest Hemingway, and, consequently, their constructed memories. Both the Historical and the Literary knowledge relates to group and individual experiences from the present and the past. Since they reflect upon the past, they contribute to the construction of historical cultures. The extension, the length and the brutality of the First World War, characterized as a paradigmatic moment in the 20th century, has contributed for the construction of historical cultures that, aside their ifferences, question and search for a comprehension of the historical moment. / Este trabalho consiste em uma reflexão sobre a Grande Guerra (1914-1918), a partir da historiografia, dos romances Nada de Novo no Front, de Erich Maria Remarque e Adeus às Armas, de Ernest Hemingway e, conseqüentemente, das memórias engendradas por eles. Tanto o conhecimento histórico quanto o literário se relaciona com experiências individuais e coletivas do presente e do passado. Na medida em que ambos refletem sobre o passado, contribuem para a construção de culturas históricas. A Primeira Guerra Mundial se caracteriza como um momento paradigmático, do século XX, no qual a extensão, a duração e a brutalidade do conflito colaboraram para a construção de culturas históricas, que independentemente dos caminhos percorridos, questionam e procuram compreender este momento.

Esta tese busca refletir sobre a configuração fragmentária da produção do escritor Franz Kafka (1883-1924). Procura-se mostrar como a partir do final de 1916 ocorre na produção kafkiana uma inflexão formal decorrente de uma mudança no modo do escritor conceber o caráter danificado de sua escrita. / This thesis reflects upon the fragmentary configuration of Franz Kafka´s production. It aims to show how, from the end of 1916, occurs an formal inflection in the Kafkaesque production due to a change in the way the writer conceives the \"damaged\" character of his writing.

In questo lavoro è stata studiata l’evoluzione della strategia di sicurezza imperiale della Gran Bretagna. Il periodo preso in esame è compreso tra la fine dell’Ottocento e i primi anni del Novecento. Alla luce di questa evoluzione e del contesto internazionale che l’ha generata, è studiata la strategia seguita da Londra durante il primo conflitto mondiale, analizzando il caso dell’intervento della British Army in Italia dopo la battaglia di Caporetto. La tesi mostra come l’immobilità del fronte occidentale spinse il Governo britannico a cercare nuovi fronti al fine di garantire i suoi obiettivi strategici. In questo contesto è inserito l’ingresso dell’Italia nel conflitto. Lo studio evidenzia come la Gran Bretagna intendesse il fronte italiano quale strumento per sottrarre risorse alla Germania. Dopo Caporetto gli inglesi, giunti in Italia per supportare l’esercito italiano, cercarono di utilizzarlo con il fine di escludere l’Austria-Ungheria dal conflitto e isolare la Germania. La tesi dimostra come, dal punto di vista inglese, il fronte italiano fosse un esempio di expeditionary strategy, ma che divenne una componente veramente integrata della difesa imperiale britannica solo nel momento in cui l’Italia isolò la Germania e si preparò a invaderla da sud, dopo la battaglia di Vittorio Veneto. / The aim of this work is to study the evolution of the British Imperial security strategy. The work investigates the period between the end of the 18th Century and the beginning of the 19th. In the light of the evolution and the international contest that created it, it is studied the strategy applied by London during the First World War and will be analysed the case of the British Army’s expedition in Italy after the battle of Caporetto. The thesis shows that the immobility of the western front led the British Government to seek new fronts in order to gain its strategic objectives. The study shows how Great Britain interpreted the Italian front such as a tool to take resources away from Germany. After Caporetto the British came to Italy to support the Italian Army, they tried to use it to exclude Austria-Hungary from the conflict and to close off Germany. The thesis proves that, by the British point of view, the Italian front was an example of expeditionary strategy, but it became an integrated part of the Imperial British strategy only when Italy isolated Germany and organised its invasion from the South, after the battle of Vittorio Veneto.

The topic of this diploma thesis is the feeding of soldiers of the Austro-Hungarian Army during the period of the First World War. The aim was to analyze this topic from the perspective of ordinary actors - soldiers and non-commissioned officers. The thesis is structured into six parts leaving aside the introduction and the conclusion. The first chapter treats some psychological aspects of the alimentation within the thematic scope of this thesis. The second part continues with text dedicated to the eating habits of the Czech society at the beggining of the 20th century being as the starting point of the cultural change, which was a draft to the army. It is followed by an introduction to the military environment while emphasis is placed on the social and emotional connotations of meals. The next part focuses on war fatigue and misery, which turned the ladder of moral and market values upside down and caused a deep transformation of society. The last chapter compares the different approaches to the resources inside of the Austro-Hungarian Army to the dietary standards of the allied and hostile armies, while focusing on the effect on the morale and companionship of soldiers. As for its sources, the thesis relies on the Czech written sources of personal nature from the Czech soldiers of the...

Cette thèse explore la Première Guerre mondiale comme modèle historique de stress psychologique subi dans l'enfance. L'Hypothèse d'Origine Développementale des Maladies (DOHaD) prévoit une susceptibilité accrue aux maladies chroniques à l'âge adulte des individus exposés à des événements traumatiques aux premiers stades du développement. Nous avons constitué une cohorte d'orphelins nés en 1914-1916, et ce grâce au statut de "pupilles de la Nation", créé par une loi de 1917 et accordé sur requête à tous les orphelins, quel que soit le statut socioéconomique de la famille. L'attribution du statut de pupille était inscrite en marge de l'acte de naissance. Les registres de naissance ont donc permis un recensement exhaustif de tous les pupilles nés dans les villes incluses ainsi qu'un suivi de la mortalité à l'âge adulte. Les actes de naissance de 7,250 pupilles ont été transcrits à ce jour. L'appel à la Base des Morts pour la France a fourni la date de décès du père, et donc sa position dans le calendrier de développement de l'enfant. Des matched non-orphans (MNOs) ont été sélectionnés dans les mêmes registres. Le critère d'intérêt était la longévité de ceux ayant atteint l'âge de 31 ans. Un écart orphelin - MNO de ~ 2.5 années a été trouvé en cas de perte prénatale du père, mais aucune différence n'a été mise en évidence dans le cas d'une perte postnatale. La conjonction de ces deux résultats suggère qu'un traumatisme in utero a un effet de programmation de la susceptibilité biologique à l'âge adulte assez fort pour altérer la longévité. / This thesis explores the First World War as a historical model in early life psychological stress. The Developmental Origins of Health and Disease (DOHaD) hypothesis predicts increased susceptibility to chronic diseases in adulthood for those exposed to an extreme psychological trauma in very early life. We collected vital information on French orphans born 1914-1916 thanks to the “pupille de la Nation” distinction, a legal status created in 1917 and granted upon request to all orphans. Notification of “adoption by the Nation” was by law inscribed on the birth certificate of a newly adopted child. Birth registers thus provided a census of all pupilles born in the included cities during the inclusion period as well as long-term mortality follow-up. The birth certificates of 7,250 pupilles have been digitized. Call to the Died for France Database enabled us to retrieve the paternal date of death. Matched non-orphans (MNOs) were drawn from the same birth registers. For each orphan, his MNO was therefore chosen born in the same district at the same time. The outcome of interest was longevity of those who survived to 31 y. An orphan-MNO difference in adult longevity of ~2.5 years was found for orphans who had lost their father before) birth (prenatal orphans), but no difference in adult longevity could be measured between postnatal orphans and their MNOs. These two results suggest early trauma in utero has programming effects on biological susceptibility in adulthood strong enough to alter longevity. The fact that no loss of lifespan was found in the case of a postnatal loss of father further suggests efficient buffers to early postnatal stress existed in French society.