Em solos alagados, o amônio é a forma nitrogenada mais estável, ao contrário do nitrato, que é rapidamente perdido por desnitrificação. Por isso, pouca importância é dada ao nitrato como fonte de N para o arroz em solos alagados. Entretanto, a nitrificação na rizosfera e na superfície do solo pode fornecer nitrato para o arroz. Este trabalho, constituído por três estudos, cada um com dois experimentos, foi realizado para avaliar a importância dessas duas formas na absorção de nitrogênio e no desenvolvimento de genótipos de arroz. No Estudo 1, avaliou-se o efeito de proporções de amônio e nitrato, em solução nutritiva, na morfologia do sistema radicular, na absorção de nitrogênio e no desenvolvimento de genótipos de arroz. No Estudo 2, avaliou-se uma metodologia para avaliar a formação de aerênquima, liberação de oxigênio na raiz e sua relação com a oxidação de ferro. No Estudo 3, avaliou-se a relação entre a disponibilidade de nitrato em solo e solução nutritiva, e a expressão gênica de OsNRTs. O efeito combinado de amônio e nitrato promoveu melhor crescimento do arroz em relação às fontes isoladas e indica que o nitrato é fonte importante de nitrogênio para essa cultura. As fontes isoladas podem causar toxidez às plantas. A metodologia testada para obter ambiente de hipoxia foi eficiente por retirar o oxigênio livre, e estabelece uma relação entre a porosidade da raiz e a formação de placa férrica, possibilitando diferenciar genótipos quanto à capacidade de liberar oxigênio para a rizosfera. A detecção de nitrato no solo alagado e na seiva do xilema, aliados à expressão dos genes OsNRTs, de forma diferenciada entre genótipos de arroz, demonstram que o nitrato é uma fonte importante de suprimento de nitrogênio e para o arroz irrigado por inundação. / In flooded soils, ammonium is the stable nitrogen form, while nitrate is lost by denitrification. As result, little importance is given to nitrate as nitrogen source for rice in flooded soils. However, nitrification processes in rhizosphere zone and at soil surface can furnish nitrogen as nitrate for flooded rice. This research was conducted, as three studies, each one by two experiments, to evaluate the importance of each, ammonium and nitrate forms, for nitrogen nutrition and development of rice genotypes. In Study 1, the effect of different proportions of such nitrogen forms, in nutrient solution, on root morphology, nitrogen uptake and rice development were evaluated. In Study 2, a methodology to verify aerenchyma formation, oxygen release and iron plaque formation at root surface was tested. In Study 3, the relation among nitrate availability, in soil and nutrient solution, and OsNRTs gene expression was evaluated. The effect of combined, ammonium and nitrate forms provide better rice growth than each single nitrogen form, and indicate that nitrate is an important nitrogen source to rice. Ammonium and nitrate alone are toxic for rice plants. The proposed methodology to obtain hypoxia environment was efficient to extract free oxygen, and made possible to obtain a relationship of root porosity with iron plaque formation, and to differentiate rice genotypes as the capacity to release oxygen to rhizosphere. The presence of nitrate in flooded soil and in xylem sap, together with OsNRTs gene expression, that is different among rice genotypes, indicate that nitrate is an important nitrogen supply form for flooded rice.

Compreender os mecanismos que causam variações espaço-temporais na diversidade biológica é uma das principais atribuições da ecologia. A teoria clássica de nicho prediz que o gradiente ambiental e sua complexidade mediam processos cruciais na estruturação das assembléias locais, permitindo a coexistência das espécies. A associação entre fatores espaciais e ambientais e diversidade inventário e diversidade diferenciação de mamíferos Neotropicais, tem sido usualmente investigada por estudos de resolução grosseira. Assim, o efeito do gradiente ambiental em resolução fina, ainda é praticamente desconhecido. Neste trabalho, eu investiguei os efeitos de processos ambientais, espaciais e ambientais espacialmente estruturados sobre a diversidade α e β de mamíferos, em uma área de aproximadamente de 1.100,42 km2 no norte do Pantanal, a maior área úmida contínua do planeta. Utilizei um método de análise espacial chamado Análise de Coordenadas Principais de Matrizes Vizinhas e modelos lineares para descrever as contribuições desses processos. Os resultados demostram que fatores ambientais e espaciais, em conjunto, são mais importantes do que os efeitos independentes de cada fator, tanto para a diversidade α quanto para a β. O modelo completo explicou 18% da variação na diversidade α e 41% da variação na diversidade β. A diversidade β estimada foi negativamente relacionada com a diversidade α estimada. A diversidade β observada foi positivamente relacionada com a variação da estrutura de habitas entre sítios, embora o modelo tenha explicado uma porcentagem pequena da variação total. Os dados sugerem que embora os grandes mamíferos neotropicais sejam considerados espécies generalistas, eles não ocorrem de forma homogênea ao longo do gradiente, criado pelo mosaico da paisagem pantaneira, e que o papel da variação de nicho espacial é fundamental para manter a riqueza específica em nível regional. / Comprehending the mechanism that causes spatial-temporal variation in biological diversity is at the core of ecological inquiry. Classical niche theory states that environmental gradient and complexity mediate crucial processes that structure local assemblages, allowing species to co-exist. The association between spatial and environmental factors and mammalian inventory or differentiation diversity in the Neotropics, has been usually investigated by coarse grain studies, thus the effect of fine grain effects on mammalian diversity still largely unappreciated. In this paper, I investigated the effects of environmental, spatial, and spatially structured environmental processes on mammalian α- and β-diversity in an area of approximately 1,100.42 km2 in the northern Pantanal, the largest continuous wetland on Earth. I used a spatial analysis method called Principal Coordinates of Neighbor Matrices analysis and linear models to depict the contributions of these processes. The results show that environmental and spatial factors, jointly, are more important than the independent effects of each factor for both, α- and β-diversity. The full model accounted for 18% of the variation in α- diversity and 41% of the variation in β-diversity. Estimated β-diversity decreased with estimated α-diversity. Observed β-diversity increased with site distinctness, although the model had a poor fit and explained a small amount of the total variance. My data suggests that although most large Neotropical mammals are broadly distributed and considered plastic species, they do not occur homogeneously across the landscape, and that the role of spatial niche is critical to maintain species richness at the landscape level.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Human activities have increased the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, mainly carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide. Agriculture, mainly in Brazil, has been identified as a major source of greenhouse gas emissions, but is also seen as an activity that allows emission reduction through appropriate management practices and land use. The floodplain soils are suitable for cultivation of paddy rice, and Rio Grande do Sul is the largest producer of rice in these conditions, and consequently, one of the most responsible for the emission of methane. Knowledge of the methane emissions from flooded soils is quite advanced, as well as carbon dioxide, but nitrous oxide still lacks much study to the knowledge along with the other gases reach the management that provides the least impact on terms of emissions of greenhouse gases. The aim of this work was to evaluate the factors controlling the emission of greenhouse gases in flooded soils and their electrochemical processes responsible for change in the constituents of the soil solution related to emissions. The study was developed under controlled conditions in the Department of Soil, Federal University of Santa Maria (UFSM), in the years 2011, 2012 and 2013. The experiment consisted of the assessment of the effects of the following factors: with rice cultivation and fallow rice; different doses and amounts of nitrate and added straw; different managements of straw and water. For such studies pots containing soil collected in lowland rice producer Soils Department UFSM (Planossolo Háplico) were assembled. Air samples and soil solution were analyzed. This thesis is structured in three studies: in study I tested the hypothesis that, due to the electrolytic reduction process for changing the state of soil moisture, the dynamics of nitrous oxide should not be the same as methane, therefore, the time interval between data collection and the collection time are also not, in study II aimed to relate nitrate concentration and the amount of straw with the intensity and period of nitrous oxide, and the study III the effect of management was evaluated rice straw and water in the change of the electrochemical characteristics of the soil and hence in the emission of carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide. As the most important results and conclusions was that: The appropriate interval between the sampling of gas for analysis of nitrous oxide is 24 hours, while for methane and carbon dioxide can be up to one week; N2O emission occurs only at the beginning of flooding duration depending on the availability of nitrate, CH4 from 20th DA and CO2 is during the period of rice cultivation, the time most suitable for collecting samples to represent the daily average emission of oxide nitrous is close at noon; the addition of straw in flooded soils reduces the emission of N2O to the atmosphere; the lower the nitrate concentration in soil and incorporated greater amount of straw, the lower the emission of N2O, but this condition could favor the onset of methane emission, because the straw helps consume oxidized compounds such as nitrate precursor, N2O, and accelerates the electrolytic reduction required for methane production. / As atividades antrópicas têm aumentado a quantidade de gases de efeito estufa na atmosfera, principalmente o dióxido de carbono, metano e óxido nitroso. A agricultura, principalmente no Brasil, tem sido apontada como uma importante fonte de emissão desses gases, mas também é vista como uma atividade que permite redução da emissão através de manejos e usos adequados dos solos. Os solos de várzeas são próprios para cultivo de arroz alagado, e o Rio Grande do Sul é o maior produtor brasileiro de arroz nessas condições, e consequentemente, um dos maiores responsáveis pela emissão de metano. O conhecimento sobre a emissão de metano no cultivo do arroz é bastante avançado, assim como a do dióxido de carbono, porém, o óxido nitroso ainda carece de muito estudo para juntamente com o conhecimento dos demais gases, chegar ao manejo que proporcione o menor impacto em termos de emissão de gases de efeito estufa. O objetivo desse trabalho foi avaliar os fatores controladores da emissão de gases de efeito estufa em solos alagados e seus processos eletroquímicos responsáveis pela alteração dos componentes da solução do solo relacionados às emissões. Os experimentos foram desenvolvidos em estufa climatizada do Departamento de solos da Universidade Federal de Santa Maria (UFSM), RS nos anos de 2011, 2012 e 2013. Os experimentos consistiram na avaliação dos efeitos dos seguintes fatores: cultivo de arroz e sem cultivo de arroz; diferentes doses e quantidades de nitrato e de palha adicionados; diferentes manejos da palha e da água. Para tais experimentos foram montados vasos contendo solo coletado em várzea produtora de arroz do Departamento de Solos da UFSM (Planossolo Háplico). Foram analisadas amostras de ar e da solução do solo. A presente tese foi estruturada em três estudos: no estudo I foi testada a hipótese de que, devido ao processo de redução eletrolítica durante a alteração do estado de umidade do solo, a dinâmica da emissão de óxido nitroso não deve ser a mesma do metano, portanto, o intervalo de tempo entre coletas e o momento de coleta também não são; no estudo II visou relacionar a concentração de nitrato e a quantidade de palha com a intensidade e período de emissão de óxido nitroso; no estudo III foi avaliado o efeito do manejo da palha de arroz e da água na mudança das características eletroquímicas do solo e, consequentemente, na emissão de GEE. Como resultados e conclusões mais importantes teve-se que: O intervalo adequado entre coletas de amostras de gases para análise da emissão de óxido nitroso é de 24 horas, enquanto que para o metano e dióxido de carbono pode ser de até uma semana; a emissão de N2O ocorre somente no início do alagamento com duração em função da disponibilidade de nitrato, o CH4 a partir de 20º DA e o CO2 durante todo o período de cultivo de arroz; o horário mais indicado para coleta de amostras para representar a média diária de emissão de óxido nitroso é próximo ao meio dia; a adição de palha em solos alagados reduz a emissão de N2O para a atmosfera; quanto menor a concentração de nitrato no solo e maior quantidade de palha incorporada, menor será a emissão de N2O, porém, essa condição poderá favorecer o início da emissão de metano, pois a palha ajuda a consumir os compostos oxidados, como o nitrato, precursor do N2O, e acelera a redução eletrolítica necessária para produção de metano.

Oxyreduction reactions resulting from the soil flood promote lighest availability of nutrients from fertilizer application, soil solution. Although the management of drainage, necessary to improve plant establishment contributes to the loss of fertility in these agroecosystems, events such as leaching, runoff and leakage of water from the blocks with the rains keep this ecosystem enriched and pro- development of phytoplankton. Euglenoids and cyanobacteria are favored by these conditions to grow excessively (blooms) and causing environmental impacts that are applicable to the water bodies receiving drainage waters. Moreover, many of cyanobacteria that develop in these environments also contribute to the maintenance of soil fertility. Within this context, with this work, to characterize populations of heterocytous cyanobacterias that contribute to soil fertility and euglenas red blooms forming in agroecosystem of flooded rice. To achieve these objectives, samples of water and soil in three experimental blocks of rice, and conducted two separate studies: culture, isolation and morfomolecular characterization of heterocytous cyanobacteria and cultivation, morphological characterization, monitoring on site and location of blooms cysts of resistance in the soil, forming euglenas pigmented red blooms. Morphological analysis allowed the characterization of four genera of heterocytous cyanobacteria that contribute to soil fertility: Nostoc, Anabaena, Cilindrospermum and Calotrix. Sequencing of 16S RNA gene was only positive for a strain of the genus Nostoc (Nostoc linckia) which, by phylogenetic analysis showed to be a lineage close to Nostoc sp. TH1S01 e Nostoc piscinale. The results obtained in experiments that were aimed at location of the cysts of resistance suggested that such cysts are found at a depth 0-5 cm of soil, however, focuses more on the surface. For euglenoids there was no evidence of the location of the cysts of resistance even at the surface. Monitoring the appearance of blooms of red euglenas shows that the absence of turbulence in water depths, influenced by wind velocity, and water temperature, influenced by atmospheric temperature and solar radiation are key factors for development. It follows from this work, the dynamics of both populations of cyanobacteria as euglenoids in crop irrigated rice is controlled by many biotic and abiotic making knowledge of their diversity and behavior, in practice very difficult having to therefore, the need to employ different methodologies and continuous monitoring and prolonged. It follows further that the use of in vitro culture, while contributing to the research morfomoleculares, promotes populations changes and further complicates the charactrization of the species. / As reações de oxiredução decorrentes da inundação em lavoura de arroz irrigado promovem uma maior disponibilidade de nutrientes, oriundos da aplicação de fertilizantes, na solução do solo. Embora o manejo de drenagem inicial, necessário para o melhor estabelecimento das plântulas, contribua para a perda de fertilidade nesses agroecossistemas, eventos como a lixiviação, o escorrimento superficial e o extravasamento de água das quadras com as chuvas mantêm esse tipo de ecossistema enriquecido e favorável ao desenvolvimento do fitoplâncton. O campo de arroz irrigado é um ambiente aquático temporário sujeito a grandes variações quanto a isolação, temperatura, pH, concentração do oxigênio dissolvido e estado nutricional devido a perturbações freqüentes através de práticas como o uso de agrotóxicos (WHATANABE e ROGER, 1985). Cianobactérias e euglenofíceas são favorecidas por essas condições crescendo excessivamente (florações) e causando impactos ambientais que são extensivos aos corpos d`água receptores das águas de drenagem. Por outro lado, muitas das cianobactérias que se desenvolvem nesses ambientes também contribuem para a manutenção da fertilidade do solo. Nesse contexto, objetivou-se com esse trabalho, caracterizar populações de cianobactérias heterocitadas que contribuem para a fertilidade do solo e euglenas vermelhas formadoras de florações em agroecossistema de arroz irrigado por inundação. Para atingir esses objetivos, foram coletadas amostras de água e solo em três quadras experimentais de arroz irrigado e conduzido dois estudos distintos: cultivo, isolamento e caracterização morfomolecular de cianobactérias heterocitadas e cultivo, caracterização morfológica, monitoramento in loco das florações e localização dos cistos de resistência no solo, de euglenas pigmentadas formadoras de florações vermelhas. A análise morfológica permitiu a caracterização de quatro gêneros de cianobactérias heterocitadas que contribuem para a fertilidade do solo: Nostoc, Anabaena, Cilindrospermum e Calotrix. O sequenciamento da região 16S do rDNA foi positivo apenas para uma linhagem do gênero Nostoc (Nostoc linckia) que, pela análise filogenética, está no mesmo grupo de Nostoc TH1S01 e Nostoc piscinale. Os resultados obtidos nos experimentos que visaram a localização dos cistos de resistência evidenciaram que estes se encontram numa profundidade de 0 a 5 cm do solo, porém, concentrando-se mais na superfíce. Para as euglenofíceas não houve comprovação da localização dos cistos de resistência nem mesmo na superfície. O monitoramento do surgimento das florações de euglenas vermelhas mostra que a ausência de turbulência na lâmina d`água, influenciada pela velocidade dos ventos, e a temperatura da água, influenciada pela temperatura atmosférica e radiação solar, são fatores-chave para o desenvolvimento. Conclui-se que a dinâmica das populações tanto de cianobactérias como de euglenofíceas em lavoura de arroz irrigado por inundação é comandada por muitos fatores bióticos e abióticos os quais tornam o conhecimento da sua diversidade e comportamento, na prática, muito difícil havendo, para tal, a necessidade de se empregar metodologias variadas e monitoramento continuo e prolongado. Conclui-se, ainda, que o emprego de cultivo in vitro permite a investigação morfomofológica, promove alterações das populações e dificultam ainda mais a identificação das espécies.

This thesis project solve problematic of thermal proces in lead-acid batteries. There are decribed history of lead – acid batteries, distributions of batteries, overview of construction lead – acid batteries and VRLA batteries and is decribed thermal runaway proces and basic termal process. They are listed here practical results and the measurements is concluded.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Mechanical and Nuclear Engineering / Steven J. Eckels / The current research presents the experimental investigation of the effect of tube pitch on enhanced tube bundles’ performance. The typical application of this research is flooded refrigerant evaporators. Boosting evaporator’s performance through optimizing tube spacing reduces cost and energy consumption. R-134a with the enhanced tube Turbo BII-HP and R-123 with Turbo BII-LP were used in this study. Three tube pitches were tested P/D 1.167, P/D 1.33, and P/D 1.5. Each tube bundle includes 20 tubes (19.05 mm outer diameter and 1 m long each) constructed in four passes. The test facility’s design allows controlling three variables, heat flux, mass flux, and inlet quality. The type of analysis used is local to one location in the bundle. This was accomplished by measuring the water temperature drop in the four passes. The water-side pressure drop is included in the data analysis. A new method called the EBHT (Enthalpy Based Heat Transfer) was introduced, which uses the water-side pressure drop in performing the heat transfer analysis. The input variables ranges are: 15-55 kg/m².s for mass flux, 5-60 kW/m² for heat flux, and 10-70% for inlet quality. The effect of local heat flux, local quality, and mass flux on the local heat transfer coefficient was investigated. The comparison between the bundle performance and single tube performance was included in the results of each tube bundle. The smallest tube pitch has the lowest performance in both refrigerants, with a significantly lower performance in the case of R-134a. However, the two bigger tube pitches have very similar performance at low heat flux. Moreover, the largest tube pitch performance approaches that of the single tube at medium and high heat fluxes. For the R-123 study, the smallest tube bundle experienced quick decease in performance at high qualities, exhibiting tube enhancement dry-out at certain flow rates and high qualities. The flow pattern effect was demonstrated by the dry-out phenomena. At medium and high heat fluxes, as the tube pitch increases, the performance approaches that of the single tube. All tube bundles experience quick decrease in performance at high qualities. Evidently, P/D 1.33 is the optimum tube pitch for the studied refrigerants and enhanced tubes combinations.

Avec le développement des mesures de pluie à hautes résolutions spatiales et temporelles , l’utilisation de modèles hydrométéorologiques distribués est désormais envisagée pour anticiper les phénomènes de crue soudaine sur les petits bassins versants non jaugés. Toutefois les approches développées jusqu’ici se sont généralement concentrées sur l’évaluation des phénomènes hydrologiques, laissant de côté la question de leurs impacts, qui dépendent fortement de la configuration du terrain et des enjeux qui y sont présents. Ce travail de thèse a permis de développer et tester une méthode d’évaluation directe de ces impacts à partir des sorties d’un modèle pluie-débit sur un territoire limité. La démarche mise en oeuvre repose sur un travail préalable d’analyse du territoire permettant d’une part d’évaluer les emprises submergées dans une large gamme de débits par une approche hydraulique simplifiée, puis de construire des relations univoques débit-enjeux pour chaque bief de cours d’eau. Ces relations permettent de produire des cartes d‘enjeux potentiellement touchés ,pouvant être actualisées régulièrement en cours d’événement. Deux études des cas ont permis de réaliser une première évaluation des performances de cette approche, du point de vue de la qualité d’estimation des emprises inondées, et du point de vue des impacts estimés à l’échelle d’un événement grâce à la comparaison avec des données d’assurance. Finalement, ces travaux ont permis de confirmer le potentiel de la méthode, dont les performances semblent en adéquation avec l’objectif visé : obtenir rapidement une première hiérarchisation des impacts occasionnés par les crues soudaines à l’échelle d’un grand territoire. / With the development of rainfall measurements at highspatial and temporal resolutions, the use of distributed hydrometeorological models is now considered to forecast flash floods on small and ungauged catchment areas. Current flashflood monitoring systems generally enable a real-time assessment of the potential flash-flood magnitudes. However they do not assess the potential impacts of flash-flood, which highly depends on the catchment areas configuration and on the importance of potentially affected assets. The purpose of this PhD research work was to develop and test a method which can be used to directly estimate the impacts of flash-floods, based on the outputs of a distributed rainfall-run off model. The approach is based on a prior analysis of the study area in order to assess the potential impact of different discharge levels on the flooded areas and to identify from geography database the associated buildings at risk. The aim is to build impact models on specific river reaches, using discharge versus impact graphs. The use of these impact models combined with a rainfall-run off model, has enabled us to compute maps of potential impacts, based on real time assessment of flood events updated every 15 minutes. This method was evaluated on two case studies looking at the accuracy and relevance of estimated impacts for each event – and comparing the outcomes to insurance losses data. This research work has helped to confirm the efficiency of this new combined method, which may become a useful tool to forecast large-scale effects of local impacts of flash-floods.

It is well known that methane (CH4) is emitted from soil, water and wetlands under anaerobic conditions through methanogenesis. CH4 is the final product of the anaerobic respiration of the microorganism methanogen. More recently, it has been shown that CH4 is also emitted by trees and if only the emissions from soil and water are measured the fluxes of CH4 in the ecosystem will be underestimated. Considering the emission from trees, the Amazon region greatly contributes to global emissions. To investigate if there is need for method development for measuring CH4 fluxes, the aim in this study was to statistically test the spatial and the short temporal variability of CH4 emissions from trees. This was done within and between two different seasons in three different plots in the Amazon basin during the year 2017. Samples of CH4 were collected using semi rigid chambers placed on tree stems. The samples were later analyzed in a laboratory environment using the Los Gatos Ultraportable Greenhouse Gas Analyzer (UGGA). For the statistical analysis non-parametric test were used, due to the non-parametric data. In this study, the result shows that the short temporal variability is not statistically significant in any of the three plots, but the short temporal variability is statistically significant between the two seasons. This tells us that it is of importance to collect samples during different seasons of the year when measuring CH4 emissions from trees. The spatial variability is statistically significant on all the three plots in both seasons. This tell us that it is important to collect samples from different heights of the tree stems when collecting CH4 samples regardless of the season. / The Global Methane Budget

Through distributed stream network routing, it has quantitatively been shown that the relationship between flow travel time and discharge varies strongly nonlinearly with stream stage and with catchment-specific properties. Physically derived distributions of water travel times through a stream network were successfully used to parameterise the streamflow response function of a compartmental hydrological model. Predictions were found to improve compared to conventional statistically based parameterisation schemes, for most of the modelled scenarios, particularly for peakflow conditions. A Fourier spectral analysis of 55-110 years of daily discharge time series from 79 unregulated catchments in Sweden revealed that the discharge power spectral slope has gradually increased over time, with significant increases for 58 catchments. The results indicated that the catchment scaling function power spectrum had steepened in most of the catchments for which historical precipitation series were available. These results suggest that (local) land-use changes within the catchments may affect the discharge power spectra more significantly than changes in precipitation (climate change). A case study from an agriculturally intense catchment using historical (from the 1880s) and modern stream network maps revealed that the average stream network flow distance as well as average water levels were substantially diminished over the past century, while average bottom slopes increased. The study verifies the hypothesis that anthropogenic changes (determined through scenario modelling using a 1D distributed routing model) of stream network properties can have a substantial influence on the travel times through the stream networks and thus on the discharge hydrographs. The findings stress the need for a more hydrodynamically based approach to adequately describe the variation of streamflow response, especially for predictions of higher discharges. An increased physical basis of response functions can be beneficial in improving discharge predictions during conditions in which conventional parameterisation based on historical flow patterns may not be possible - for example, for extreme peak flows and during periods of nonstationary conditions, such as during periods of climate and/or land use change. / <p>QC 20150903</p>

The release of new cultivars and improvement in management practices is necessary to examine the time and nitrogen (N) rates to be applied to obtain high yields. Also there is little information about the effect of the N rate and stage (vegetative or reproductive) on the sensitivity of plants of rice to cold in the reproductive stage. For these reasons four experiments were installed two in field and two in a greenhouse with the objective of determining the effect of N rates and application timing on yield and on the susceptibility of rice plants to low temperature in the reproductive stage. The experiments were conducted in the 2006/2007 and 2007/2008 growing season at INIA Treinta y tres, Uruguay. The experimental design in greenhouse was completely randomized in a factorial experimental design (factor A: stages or rates of N application and B factor: treatment of temperature), with four replications. To study the effect of the time of application of N, The treatments were application of N (30 kg ha-1) in the stages V4, V5, V6, V7, V8, R0, R1 and control without N in topdress. To study the effect of rates were applied to the factor A 0, 23, 46 and 69 kg ha-1,in V4 stage and the same rates in R0 stage. For the factor B of the two experiments were carried out two treatments: with and without cold (cold with the plants were treated with 12.5°C for 7 hours in 4 nights when the collar of the flag leaf was at the same height as the collar of the leaf below). Treatments from the field experiments were the same for the factor A of the experiments in greenhouse later explained, in a randomized block design with four replications. In a greenhouse the spikelets sterility was not affected by the application of N in different stages or the rates applied when the plants were subjected to cold. The cold treatment caused a temporary effect on the SPAD index retarding panicle emergency and reducing the size of the panicle, but did not affect yield. In the rice grown in the area after three years of livestock the plants respond to low rates and times of application of N in yield and its components / A liberação de novas cultivares e a melhoria nas práticas de manejo fazem necessário estudar as épocas e doses de N a serem aplicadas para obter altas produtividades. Também existem poucas informações a respeito do efeito das aplicações de doses de nitrogênio (N) em diferentes estádios (vegetativos ou reprodutivos) sobre a sensibilidade das plantas de arroz quando submetidas ao frio na fase reprodutiva. Em vista disto, foram instalados quatro experimentos dois em campo e dois em casa de vegetação com o objetivo de determinar o efeito da época e a dose de aplicação de N sobre a produtividade e sobre a Susceptibilidade de plantas de arroz irrigado à temperatura baixa na fase reprodutiva. Os experimentos foram conduzidos no ano agrícola 2006/2007 e 2007/2008 na estação experimental do INIA Treinta y Três, Uruguai. O delineamento experimental utilizado em casa de vegetação foi o inteiramente casualizado em esquema bifatorial (fator A: estádios ou doses de aplicação de N e fator B: tratamento de temperatura), com quatro repetições. Para estudar o efeito da época de aplicação de N, os tratamentos do fator A foram aplicação de N (30 kg ha-1) nos estádios V4, V5, V6, V7, V8, R0, R1 e a testemunha sem N em cobertura. Para estudar o efeito de doses foram aplicados para o fator A 0, 23, 46 e 69 kg ha-1de N no estádio V4 e as mesmas doses no estádio R0 e uma testemunha sem N em cobertura nos dois estádios No fator B dos dois experimentos realizou-se dois tratamentos: com e sem frio (com frio as plantas foram submetidas com 12,5°C durante 7 horas em 4 noites seguidas quando o colar da folha bandeira ficou à mesma altura que o colar da folha anterior). O delineamento em campo foi de blocos ao acaso com quatro repetições. Os tratamentos foram de estádios ou doses de aplicação de N iguais aos dos experimentos em casa de vegetação Em casa de vegetação a esterilidade de espiguetas não é afetada pela aplicação de N em estádios diferentes, nem pelas doses aplicadas, em função dos tratamentos de frio a que as plantas foram submetidas. O tratamento de frio provoca um efeito temporário no índice SPAD atrasando a emergência de panículas e reduzindo o tamanho da panícula, mas não afeta a produtividade. Em campo o arroz cultivado em área após três anos de pecuária há baixa resposta às doses e épocas de aplicação de N em cobertura sobre a produtividade de grãos e seus componentes.