O estrógeno é importante para o desenvolvimento de redes neuronais. Assim, investigamos mecanismos celulares relacionados à neuroproteção, através da sinalização rápida mediada pelo GPER-1 em cultura mistas e enriquecida de neurônios submetidas ou não à privação de glicose/oxigênio (PGO). Mostramos que as células corticais em cultura expressam o receptor GPER-1 e esta marcação encontra-se dispersa tanto no citosol como no núcleo. Nossos resultados mostraram que a proteção, via sinalização estrogênica, foi dependente da composição celular. A ausência da sinalização via GPER-1 previamente à PGO aumentou a morte celular induzida pela PGO, sugerindo que o bloqueio desta sinalização via GPER-1 pode estar relacionado ao pior prognóstico de lesões isquêmicas, e a suplementação com G1 no meio de cultura durante a privação e reperfusão atenuaram estes efeitos. Além disso, nossos resultados apontam para a influência das células da glia como mediadores do papel neuroprotetor, via sinalização estrogênica não-nuclear, neste contexto de privação de glicose/oxigênio. / Estrogen is important to the development of neural networks. Thus, we investigated the cellular mechanisms related to neuroprotection through the rapid signaling mediated by GPER-1 in mixed culture and enriched neurons submitted or not to glucose/oxygen deprivation (OGD). We showed that cortical cell cultures express GPER-1 receptor and this are dispersed both in the cytosol and the nucleus. Our results showed that protection via estrogen signaling was dependent on the cellular composition. The lack of a signaling pathway GPER-1 before OGD increased cell death induced by OGD, suggesting that blocking of GPER-1 signaling pathway could be related to poor prognosis of ischemic lesions and G1 supplementation of culture media during deprivation and reperfusion attenuated these effects. In addition, our results point to the influence of glial cells as mediators of the neuroprotective role via non-nuclear estrogen signaling in this context of glucose/oxygen deprivation.

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento CientÃfico e TecnolÃgico / Neste trabalho, estudos comportamentais, farmacolÃgicos e neuroquÃmicos em Ãreas cerebrais foram realizados em animais adultos (2 meses de idade) que apresentaram convulsÃo e estado epilÃptico (EP), atravÃs da administraÃÃo de pilocarpina 400mg/kg, s.c., P400, com a finalidade de investigar os mecanismos envolvidos durante a fase aguda (1 e 24h) do processo convulsivo. Os estudos comportamentais em animais mostraram que a administraÃÃo de P400 produziu sinais colinÃrgicos perifÃricos (SCP) e movimentos estereotipados (ME) em todos os animais em ambos os perÃodos de observaÃÃo. Os animais observados por 1h apresentaram parÃmetros comportamentais semelhantes ao grupo de 24h, somente o Ãndice de desenvolvimento de convulsÃes, EP, foi um pouco menor, e nÃo houve nenhuma morte. Os estudos farmacolÃgicos com antagonista colinÃrgico bloqueou todos os parÃmetros comportamentais observados. Das drogas gabaÃrgicas, os antagonistas dopaminÃrgico e glutamatÃrgico apresentaram melhor resultado, aumentado a latÃncia da primeira convulsÃo (LC), a latÃncia do EP (LEP) e reduzindo o nÃmero de mortes. Os antagonistas dopaminÃrgico D2, o opÃide, os antidepressivos e o agonista dopaminÃrgico reduziram a LC, LEP e aumentou o nÃmero de mortes, enquanto o antipsicÃtico testado aumentou a LC, a LEP e reduziu as mortes. O lÃtio potencializou os efietos da pilocarpina aumentado o nÃmero de mortes e reduzindo a LC e a LEP. Os estudos neuroquÃmicos revelaram que a atividade da acetilcolinesterase no hipocampo, cÃrtex frontal (CF) e corpo estriado dos animais sofreu uma reduÃÃo significativa apenas na primeira hora da fase aguda, enquanto que no perÃodo de 24h de observaÃÃo a atividade enzimÃtica praticamente se normalizou. O nÃvel de lipÃdio peroxidaÃÃo e o conteÃdo de nitrito e nitrato aumentaram, enquanto que, a concentraÃÃo de GSH diminui nos dois perÃodos do estudo nas Ãreas investigadas. A atividade da SOD aumentou durante 1h em todas a Ãreas. Por sua vez, no perÃodo de 24h aumentou apenas no CF. Na atividade da catalase em ambos os perÃodos e nas Ãreas estudadas verificou-se um aumento significativo. Estudos sobre a densidade mÃxima (Bmax) dos receptores colinÃrgicos muscarÃnicos (M1 e M2) e dopaminÃrgicos (D1 e D2) nas Ãreas analisadas durante 1 e 24h de observaÃÃo foram diminuÃdos e nÃo alterados, respectivamente. Em relaÃÃo aos receptores serotonÃrgicos (5-HT2) nÃo foi verificado alteraÃÃo no Bmax apÃs 1 e 24h de observaÃÃo, nas trÃs Ãreas estudadas. Nas trÃs Ãreas estudadas observou-se um aumento e uma diminuiÃÃo no Bmax dos receptores glutamatÃrgicos e GABAÃrgicos, respectivamente. O P400 alterou de forma diversificada a constante de dissociaÃÃo (Kd) dos receptores M1, M2, D1, D2, 5-HT2, GABAÃrgicos e glutamatÃrgicos nos animais que apresentaram convulsÃo, EP e que foram sacrificados 1 e 24 h depois do tratamento. Na determinaÃÃo de monoaminas e seus metabÃlitos com HPLC, o P400 alterou a concentraÃÃo de DA, DOPAC e HVA, bem como da NA e da 5-HT e seu metabÃlito o 5-HIAA nas diferentes regiÃes do cÃrebro apÃs 1 e 24 h de observaÃÃo. Nos experimentos de determinaÃÃo do conteÃdo dos aminoÃcidos com HPLC, o P400 alterou a concentraÃÃo de (glutamato) GLU estriatal, (glutamina) GLN hipocampal, (aspartato) ASP cortical e nÃo modificou o conteÃdo de tirosina com 1h nas trÃs Ãreas estudadas. JÃ com 24 horas de observaÃÃo nÃo houve alteraÃÃo em nenhuma das Ãreas nos aminoÃcidos GLU, GLN e ASP, mas o conteÃdo de tirosina aumentou de forma significativa nas Ãreas investigadas. / The present study was aimed at investigating behavioural and neurochemical alterations in brain areas of adults rat (2-month-old) which presented seizures and status epilepticus (SE) after treatment with a single dose of pilocarpine (400mg/kg, s.c., P400) in order to clarify the mechanisms of the acute phase in the convulsive process (1 and 24h). Behavioural studies have demonstrated that the P400 administration produced peripheral cholinergic signs and stereotyped movements in all of the animals in both periods of observation. The behavioural parameters assessed between 1 and 24 h were similar, but the seizure and SE development index was slightly lower in the 1h group and in the same group no case of fatality was observed. The pharmacological studies with antagonist cholinergic did not present any of the behavioural alterations. The drugs gabaergic, the antagonist dopaminergic D1, antipsychotic used and glutamatergic antagonist presented increased in the latency to first seizure (LS), latency of the SE (LSE) and decreasing the number of the death. The antagonists dopaminergic D2, the opioide, the antidepressants, and the dopaminergic agonist decreased the LS and a LSE and increased the number of the death. The lithium increased the effects of the pilocapine as well as the number of the death and decreased the LS and LSE. Neurochemical assessments revealed that acetylcholinesterase activity in hippocampus, frontal cortex and striatum decreased significantly only the first hour of the acute phase, meanwhile after 24h, the enzymatic activity remained unaltered. Lipid peroxidation level and nitrite e nitrate content were augmented whereas the GSH concentration was decreased in the areas investigated in both periods of observation. The SOD activity was increased during the first hour in the three areas. In turn, in the 24h period it was augmented in the frontal cortex alone. The catalase activity was significantly increased in both periods and in all areas. Works concerning maximum density (Bmax) of muscarinc cholinergic (M1 e M2) and dopaminergic (D1 e D2) receptors in the areas studied during 1h and 24h of observation were decreased and unaltered, respectively. Regarding the serotonergic receptors (5-HT2) was not verified alteration in the Bmax after 1 and 24h of observation in the three areas studied. In the areas studied the Bmax from glutamatergic and GABAergic receptors were increased and decreased, respectively. P400 altered the M1, M2, D1, D2, 5-HT2, GABAergic e glutamatergic receptors dissociation constant values (Kd) in distinct ways after 1 e 24h from the treatment. In the monoamine and their metabolites with HPLC determination P400 changes the DA, DOPAC and HVA as well as NA and 5-HT and its metabolite 5-HIIAA concentrations in the different cerebral areas after 1 and 24h of observation. In the experimental determinations of the amino acids contents, the P400 altered the content of (glutamate) GLU striatal, (glutamine) GLN hippocampal and the (aspartate) ASP cortical and no modified the concentration od tyrosine in the areas observed. However the TYR contents after 24 h of observation increas in striatum, hippocampus and frontal cortex, but GLU, GLN e ASP reamained unaltered in this period of the observation .

Le sous-marinage, apparaissant lorsque la ceinture pelvienne glisse au-dessus des épines iliaques antérosupérieures (E.I.A.S.) du bassin, est la cause principale des lésions abdominales sévères. Ce phénomène, conditionné par l’angle relatif entre la ceinture pelvienne et le bassin, est fortement lié à la cinématique du bassin au cours du choc. Cette dernière dépend des efforts et moments qui y sont appliqués, provenant principalement de la colonne lombaire, des hanches, du contact avec l’assise du siège ainsi que de la ceinture pelvienne. L’objectif est de caractériser le comportement de la population au regard du sousmarinage. Cela passe par l’identification des paramètres individuels influents sur le phénomène et par l’étude de leur distribution sur la population. Pour cela, neuf essais sur sujets humains post-mortem (S.H.P.M.) ont été effectués dans un environnement simplifié. Trois configurations de choc, chacune testée sur trois sujets, ont été définies. Les résultats ont ensuite servi de base pour la validation d’un modèle éléments finis d’être humain. Le modèle a été amélioré de façon globale vis-à-vis des corridors définis par les réponses S.H.P.M. et personnalisé au niveau de la géométrie, de la répartition des masses et du comportement de la colonne lombaire pour correspondre à chacun des neuf sujets. La personnalisation de ces paramètres a permis de reproduire les comportements observés en essais. Enfin, le modèle a été utilisé dans une étude numérique pour approfondir la compréhension de la cinématique du bassin, d’une part, et identifier les paramètres individuels influençant le sous-marinage, d’autre part. La répartition des masses, la raideur de la colonne lombaire et l’orientation initiale du bassin influencent l’apparition du sous-marinage. L’ouverture des ailes iliaques, la position des E.I.A.S par rapport au point H, la profondeur de l’échancrure iliaque et l’épaisseur des tissus entre le bassin et la ceinture jouent aussi un rôle. / Submarining occurs in frontal crashes when the lap belt slides over the anterior superior iliac spine (ASIS) and is the principal cause of AIS 3+ abdominal injuries. Submarining is the consequence of the pelvis kinematics relative to the lap belt, driven by the equilibrium of forces and moments applied to the pelvis. The four main components playing a role in the pelvis kinematics are the lumbar spine, the hips, the seat pan and the lap belt. The purpose is to characterize the population behavior regarding submarining. This requires to identify individual parameters having an effect on submarining and to examine their distribution among the population. A nine post-mortem human subject (PMHS) sled test campaign was carried out on a simplified environment. Three test configurations were defined. Each configuration was realized on three PMHS. The test results were used as reference data for a human finite element model validation. The model was improved to better fit the PMHS corridor responses and then personalized regarding the geometry, the mass distribution and the lumbar spine behavior to obtain nine models matching each PMHS. The personalized models responses were consistent with the PMHS ones. Finally, the human model was used in a numerical study. The numerical study was aimed at deepen the understanding of the pelvis kinematics on the one hand, and investigate the influence of several individual parameters on submarining on the other hand. The mass distribution, the lumbar spine stiffness and the initial pelvis orientation have revealed an influence on the submarining observation. The iliac wing angle, the position of the ASIS relative to the H-point, the iliac notch depth and the thickness of the soft tissues between the pelvis and the lap belt were also identified to have an effect on submarining.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / The positive identification of human remains that are decomposed, burnt, or otherwise disfigured can prove especially challenging in forensic anthropology, resulting in the need for specialized methods of analysis. Due to the unique morphological characteristics of the frontal sinus, a positive identification can be made in cases of unknown human remains, even when remains are highly cremated or decomposed. This study retrospectively reviews 3D CBCT images of a total of 43 Caucasian patients between the ages of 20-38 from the Indiana University School of Dentistry to quantify frontal sinus differences between adult males and females and investigate the usefulness of frontal sinus morphology for forensic identification. Digit codes with six sections and eleven-digit numbers were created to classify each individual sinus. It was shown that 3D CBCT images of the frontal sinus could be used to make a positive forensic identification. Metric measurements displayed a high degree of variability between sinuses and no two digit codes were identical. However, it was also shown that there were almost no quantifiable and significant sexually dimorphic differences between male and female frontal sinuses. This study confirms that sex determination should not be a primary goal of frontal sinus analysis and highlights the importance of creating a standard method of frontal sinus evaluation based on metric measurements.

[pt] Este estudo investiga o envolvimento do córtex pré-frontal medial ventral nos comportamentos de defesa inatos e aprendidos em paradigmas de condicionamento de medo e estimulação elétrica intracraniana em ratos. A lesão cortical aumentou significativamente o comportamento defensivo condicionado. No comportamento defensivo incondicionado, a lesão cortical diminuiu significativamente o congelamento pós-fuga dos animais. Os resultados replicam os dados da literatura científica a respeito do papel do córtex infralímbico como uma estrutura inibitória do estímulo condicionado em um circuito amidaloide de medo condicionado, e indicam uma participação do córtex pré-frontal na modulação dos comportamentos de defesa originários da estimulação da MCPd, em especial a sustentação do congelamento motor pós fuga. / [en] This study investigates the role of the prefrontal cortex in the innate and conditioned defensive behaviors in rats during classical conditioning and intracranial electrical stimulation procedurals. It was found that the cortical lesion augmented the conditioned freezing behavior to contextual fear cues. On the other hand, the lesions impaired the motor freezing presented after the escaping provoked by dPAG stimulation. These results replicate the findings from the literature about a prefrontal cortex role as an inhibitory structure in the aversive classic conditioning circuitry, as well as presenting a role for it in modulating freezing behavior in a panic circuitry involving the dPAG, especially regarding its function as a possible short term memory device for innate fear expression.

A unicidade da cavidade sinusal frontal é um importante fator para a identidade humana. O uso de registros de imagens dessa cavidade para a identificação forense é amplamente difundido, sendo uma metodologia secundária segundo a INTERPOL. Recentes avanços nas tecnologias de imagem permitiram o registro de imagens tridimensionais dessa cavidade. Nosso objetivo foi validar a metodologia proposta por Beaini et al. (2015), padronizando critérios para a obtenção de imagens tridimensionais da cavidade sinusal frontal com tomografia computadorizada de feixe cônico e avaliando a capacidade desses dados para a identificação humana. Para tanto, utilizamos um banco de imagens tomográficas de 200 pacientes randomizados e analisados por três observadores. As imagens foram exportadas em formato DICOM e submetidas a dois processos de segmentação distintos e sobreposição tridimensional. Realizou-se a metodologia descrita para estabelecer a identificação entre pacientes randomizados. Os resultados mostraram que há uma diferença significativa entre os processos de segmentação, sendo mais indicada a técnica de segmentação manual. A metodologia proposta por Beaini et al. (2015) foi validada e um total de 166 pacientes foram identificados. O volume da cavidade sinusal possui um elevado potencial de identificação com uma probabilidade aproximada de 85% para determinar o gênero dos indivíduos. / The uniqueness of the frontal sinus cavity is an important factor for establishing human identity. The usage of imaging records of this cavity for human identity is a secondary methodology according to the INTERPOL protocols. Recent advances in imaging technologies have enabled the three-dimensional imaging records of this cavity. Our goal was to validate the methodology proposed by Beaini et al. (2015), by developing standardized criteria for the use of cone beam computed tomography three-dimensional images of the front sinus and evaluating the ability of these data for human identification. The aim of this study was to investigate a total of 200 imaging records from randomized patients that were analyzed by three observers. Images were exported in DICOM format and underwent two distinct segmentation processes and a three-dimensional overlap. The Beaini et al. (2015) technique was applied to establish identification of the randomized patients. My results showed a significant difference between both segmentation processes, with manual segmentation showing the best results. Beaini et al. (2015) technique was validated and a total of 166 patients were identified. The volume of the sinus cavity has a high identification probability with a rough probability of 85% to determine the sex of individuals.

O córtex pré-frontal medial (PFCm) é caracterizado por entradas glutamatérgicas e dopaminérgicas que convergem sobre os mesmos neurônios alvos. Devido à escassa informação sobre as bases anatômicas das interações entre a dopamina (DA) e o glutamato (Glu), mapeamos a distribuição de subunidades (Su) de receptores (Rs) de Glu do tipo AMPA, NMDA e kainato no PFCm e investigamos a sua expressão em neurônios contendo a fosfoproteína DARPP-32 e em interneurônios. Os resultados mostram que as Su GluR2/3 dos Rs do tipo AMPA são as mais amplamente distribuídas no PFCm e expressas em todos os neurônios DARPP-32+. GluR2/3 é também amplamente co-localizado com as Su NMDAR1 dos Rs de Glu do tipo NMDA e GluR5/6/7 dos Rs do tipo kainato. Em contraste, as Su GluR1 e GluR4 são somente fracamente expressos no PFCm e não são co-localizados com DARPP-32, porém com GABA ou parvalbumina. Os resultados indicam que as Su GluR2/3, NMDAR1 e GluR5/6/7 são amplamente expressos em neurônios piramidais DARPP-32+ enquanto GluR1 e GluR4 são predominantemente expressos em interneurônios do PFCm. / The medial prefrontal cortex (PFCm) is characterized by glutamatergic and dopaminergic afferents that converge on the same target neurons. Since there is only limited information about the anatomical bases for interactions between dopamine (DA) and glutamate (Glu), we mapped the distribution of AMPA, NMDA and kainate Glu receptor (Rs) subunits (Su) in the PFcm and investigated their expression in neurons containing the phosphprotein DARPP-32 and in interneurons. Results show that the Su GluR2/3 of AMPA type Rs are the most prominently distributed in the PFCm and expressed in all neurons DARPP-32+. GluR2/3 is also widely co-localized with the NMDA type Su NMDAR1 and the Kainate Su GluR5/6/7. In contrast, the Su GluR1 and GluR4 are only weakly expressed in the PFCm and are not colocalized with DARPP-32 but with GABA or parvalbumin. Results indicate that the Su GluR2/3, NMDAR1, and GluR5/6/7 are prominently expressed in DARPP-32+ pyramidal neurons, whereas GluR1 and GluR4 are predominantly expressed by interneurons in the PFC.

As teorias mais influentes acerca do funcionamento do córtex pré-frontal (PFC) tomam essa estrutura como um córtex de associação e de integração de informações oriundas de outras estruturas nervosas. Isso implicaria na participação direta do PFC nos processos de memória operacional e em processo atencionais. Estudos hodológicos e neurofisiológicos sugerem, que o córtex orbitofrontal (OFC) seria responsável pela integração de informações de caráter sensorial, motivacional e afetivo, enquanto o córtex pré-frontal ventromedial (vmPFC) seria diretamente ligado ao OFC, tendo um papel crucial na codificação de estímulos emocionais oriundos da amígdala. Nesse contexto, é aceito que a integração das informações feita por essas estruturas seja essencial para o processo de tomada de decisões, uma vez que esse comportamento necessita de uma avaliação do ambiente em termos de comparações de situações novas a experiências prévias armazenadas na memória, assim como um balanço entre custos, benefícios e cálculo de possíveis valores da recompensa. Para testar essas hipóteses, ratos com danos seletivos no vmPFC foram submetidos testes de avaliação de ansiedade e medo condicionado no paradigma de teste e reteste no labirinto em cruz elevado (LCE), assim como a testes de memória de referência espacial e memória operacional no labirinto aquático de Morris. Outro grupo de animais teve matrizes de multi-eletrodos implantadas no OFC para a avaliação da atividade neuronal dessa estrutura em um teste envolvendo tomada de decisões, no qual devem escolher entre ganhar 1 pellet de chocolate imediatamente ou 4 pellets envolvendo atrasos variados. No teste no LCE, animais com lesão no vmPFC diferem dos animais controle por apresentarem uma diminuição do tempo de avaliação de risco sem apresentar alterações nos parâmetros que aferem memória, atividade locomotora e ansiedade. No teste de memória de referência espacial após treinamento extensivo de busca pela plataforma em um mesmo local no labirinto aquático, animais com lesão persistem no local quando se retira a plataforma (probe test). Já no teste de memória operacional, no qual a localização da plataforma é alterada diariamente, esses animais não diferem do grupo controle. Na tarefa envolvendo tomada de decisões, observou-se uma atividade eletrofisiológica de neurônios do OFC relacionada ao momento crítico no qual o animal deve realizar uma escolha. Em conjunto, esses resultados mostram que o vmPFC está relacionado à flexibilidade comportamental e tomada de decisões, possivelmente em conjunto com o OFC, cuja atividade neuronal sugere uma participação nos processos de tomada de decisões e de elaboração de estratégias / The most influential theories on the function of the prefrontal cortex (PFC) suggest that this structure is an association cortex, responsible for integration of information received from other parts of the brain. This would implicate in direct participation of the PFC in working memory and attentional processes. Given this context, hodological and neurophysiological studies suggest that the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) would be responsible for the integration of sensory, motivational and affective aspects, while the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC), which is directly connected to the OFC, would have a key role in encoding emotional stimuli from the amygdala. It is well accepted that the processing of these aspects of information is crucial for decision-making processes, given the fact that this expression of behavior requires an evaluation of the environment in terms of comparing novel situation to previous experiences, as well as processing the balance between costs, outcomes and reward values. In order to test these hypotheses, rats with selective lesions to the vmPFC were subjected to the elevated plus maze (EPM) to evaluate anxiety and conditioned fear in the test retest paradigm. Animal were also tested in a spatial reference memory and a working memory tasks in the Morris water maze. Another group of rats had multi-electrode arrays chronically implanted in the OFC for the evaluation of the neuronal activity during a decision-making task, in which the animals had to choose between a small reward of one chocolate pellet immediately and a large reward of four chocolate pellets after varying delays. The results of the EPM show that animals with lesion to the vmPFC differ from control animals by showing diminished time evaluating risk in the second exposure to the EPM, without damage to locomotor activity, memory and anxiety levels. In the reference spatial memory task in the water maze, after extensive training searching for the hidden platform in the same location, lesioned animals persisted searching for the platform in that particular location after it was removed (probe test). However, in the working memory task, in which the platform is presented in a different location each day, lesioned animals did not differ from control animals. In the decision-making task, differential electrophysiological activity in OFC neurons was observed, particularly in the moment of the task in which the animal was required to perform the choice between rewards. Together, these results suggest that the vmPFC is related to behavioral flexibility and decision-making, possibly acting together with the OFC, which neuronal activity suggests participation in decision-making processes

Notre environnement est complexe et changeant, ce qui apporte de l'incertitude dans les décisions de tous les jours. La capacité de détecter et résoudre l'incertitude est cruciale pour un comportement flexible et adapté. Notre hypothèse est que l'efficacité et la flexibilité comportementale en situation d'incertitude dépendent de la façon dont l'individu a appris à apprendre. Dans une 1ère étude, trois singes ont acquis un learning set pour une tâche aux règles stochastiques et changeantes. Leur réactivité aux évènements inattendus a augmenté lors de l'apprentissage, suivant l'évolution du degré d'incertitude environnementale. Cela a permis un transfert sans coût à une tâche plus complexe partageant la même structure, suggérant que les singes ont appris à apprendre la structure statistique de l'environnement. Nous avons ensuite étudié les mécanismes cérébraux sous-jacents à ce comportement flexible. Deux animaux ont reçu un implant d'électrocorticographie, sur les aires frontales et pariétales. Nous montrons d'abord, avec les données d'un animal, que des potentiels évoqués au feedback sont sensibles à la valence et au degré de surprise du feedback, et prédisent la stratégie à venir. Ensuite, nous présentons des résultats préliminaires montrant que des oscillations dans les bandes beta et thêta sont présentes au moment du feedback et de la décision, et que leur puissance est modulée de manière différente par les facteurs de la tâche. Ces résultats contribuent à révéler la complexité du réseau frontal pour la flexibilité comportementale, et ouvrent la voie à de nouvelles expériences pour comprendre comment ces mécanismes sont façonnés au cours du processus d'apprendre à apprendre / Our environment is both complex and changing, which triggers uncertainty in every decision we make. The ability to detect and solve the resulting uncertainty is crucial for adapted and flexible behavior. Our hypothesis is that behavioral efficiency and flexibility in an uncertain environment depend on the way the agent has learnt to learn. In a first study, 3 macaque monkeys developed a learning-set for a task with stochastic and changing rules. Monkey’s reactivity to unexpected feedback increased across learning and paralleled the evolution of the degree of environmental uncertainty. This enabled them to transfer, without cost, to a more complex task with the same structure, suggesting that they learned to learn the statistical structure of the environment. We then studied the cerebral mechanisms underpinning this flexible behavior. Two animals were implanted with an electrocorticography implant over the frontal and parietal areas. We first showed, using data from one animal, that feedback related potentials were sensitive to feedback valence and unexpectedness, and predictive of the upcoming behavioral strategy. Then, we present preliminary results showing that oscillations in the beta and theta bands can be recorded at the time of feedback and at the time of decision, and that their power is modulated differently depending on the various task factors. These results contribute to reveal the complexity of the frontal cortical network enabling behavioral flexibility and open new horizons for future research to understand how these mechanisms are shaped throughout the learning to learn process

La stimulation transcrânienne par courant continu (tDCS) sert à moduler l’activité neuronale. Elle consiste à appliquer un faible courant constant entre deux électrodes placées sur le cuir chevelu. Deux montages semblent efficaces pour moduler les capacités cognitives et/ou soulager des symptômes cliniques. Cependant, les effets neurobiologiques de la tDCS sont encore mal connues. Ce travail de thèse a tenté de clarifier les mécanismes cérébraux de la tDCS chez les sujets sains, en particulier en lien avec le système dopaminergique. En utilisant un design randomisée en double aveugle, nous avons combiné une session de tDCS online avec plusieurs modalités d'imagerie (PET ou PET-IRM simultanée) chez le sujet au repos. Une première étude (n=32, 2mA, 20min) a montré que la tDCS bifrontale induit une augmentation de la dopamine extracellulaire dans le striatum ventral, impliqué dans le réseau de récompense-motivation, après la stimulation. Une seconde étude (n=30, 1mA, 30min) a montré que la tDCS fronto-temporale induit une augmentation de la dopamine extracellulaire dans la partie exécutive du striatum et une diminution de la perfusion dans une région du réseau du default mode (DMN), après la stimulation. L'analyse des données de cette étude est toujours en cours. Dans l’ensemble, ce travail fournit la preuve qu'une seule session de tDCS frontale peut impacter le système dopaminergique dans des régions connectées aux zones corticales stimulées. Par conséquent, les niveaux d'activité et réactivité dopaminergique doivent être de nouveaux éléments à considérer dans l’hypothèse globale de modulation de l’activité cérébrale par la tDCS frontale / Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is used to modulate neuronal activity in the brain. It consists in applying a small constant current between two electrodes placed over the scalp. Two frontal tDCS montages have shown promises in modulating cognitive abilities and/or helping to alleviate clinical symptoms. However, the effects of tDCS on brain physiology are still poorly understood. The aim of this thesis work was to clarify brain mechanisms underlying frontal tDCS in healthy subjects, specifically in relation to the dopaminergic system. Using a double blind sham-controlled design, we combined a single session of tDCS online with several imaging techniques (PET or simultaneous PET-MRI) with the subject at rest. A first study (n=32, 2mA, 20min) showed that bifrontal tDCS induced an increase in extracellular dopamine in the ventral striatum, involved in the reward-motivation network, after the stimulation period. A second study (n=30, 1mA, 30min) showed that fronto-temporal tDCS induced an increase in extracellular dopamine in the executive part of striatum as well as a decrease in perfusion in a region part of the default mode network (DMN), after the stimulation period. The data analysis of this study is still ongoing. Overall, the present work provides evidence that a single session of frontal tDCS impacts the dopaminergic system in regions connected to the stimulated cortical areas. Therefore, levels of dopamine activity and reactivity should be new elements to consider for a general hypothesis of brain modulation by frontal tDCS