Direct fuel injection technology is increasingly being applied to the spark ignition internal combustion engine as one of the many actions required to reduce the CO2 emissions from road transport. Whilst the potential for CO2 reductions is compelling, the technology is not without disadvantages. Early examples typically emitted over an order of magnitude more Particulate Matter (PM) than vehicles with conventional spark ignition engines. Consequently, future revisions to European and North American exhaust emissions legislation are likely to regulate the particulate emissions from vehicles with direct injection gasoline engines. This thesis undertakes to investigate a) instrumentation capable of simultaneously resolving the number concentration and size distribution of particles in the 5-1000 nm size range and b) the factors affecting the PM emissions from spark ignition engines with direct fuel injection. The first objective is achieved by evaluation and comparison of a differential mobility spectrometer; photo-acoustic soot sensor; condensation particle counter and electrical low pressure impactor. To address the second question, a differential mobility spectrometer is applied to quantify the PM emissions from a number of direct injection gasoline engines, together with investigation of their dependence on various calibratable parameters, operating temperature and fuel composition. The differential mobility spectrometer showed good agreement with the other more established instruments tested. Moreover, it exhibited a faster time response and finer resolution in particle size. The number weighted size distribution of the PM emitted was typically lognormal with either one or two modes located between 20 and 100 nm. Chemical analysis of PM samples showed the presence of elemental carbon, volatile organic material and sulphates. Transient PM measurements enabled short time-scale events such as mode switching between homogeneous and stratified mixture preparation to be identified. PM number concentrations in stratified mode exceeded those in homogeneous mode by a factor of 10-100. Dynamometer based experiments showed that PM emissions increase for rich air fuel ratios, retarded fuel injection and advanced ignition events. They also demonstrated a strong dependence on fuel composition: the highest PM emissions were measured with an aromatic fuel, whereas blending alcohols such as methanol or ethanol tended to suppress PM emissions, particularly in the accumulation mode size range. These measurements are amongst the first of their kind and demonstrate the applicability of the differential mobility spectrometer to the measurement of ultra-fine particulate emissions from engines with direct fuel injection systems. Numerous explanations are put forward to describe the data obtained, together with suggestions for future work on PM control and abatement.

This research examines the feasibility of a gasoline and diesel consumer subsidy phase-out in Venezuela from a transportation planning perspective. It surveys the literature and discusses case studies from Iran, Brazil, and Bolivia in order to identify the lessons that Venezuela can learn from these countries’ successes and mistakes. It examines how strengthening and investing in the public transportation system can be used as a means to gain public support for the reform. I discuss the current political, social, and economic conditions that make a fossil-fuel subsidy reform difficult, and offer suggestions from a transportation planner’s perspective on how the transition can be made as smoothly as possible. Finally, I explore the opportunities that present themselves to transportation planners in shaping the country’s future approach toward transportation.

<p>The dissertation consists of three chapters related to the low-price guarantee marketing strategy and energy efficiency analysis. The low-price guarantee is a marketing strategy in which firms promise to charge consumers the lowest price among their competitors. Chapter 1 addresses the research question "Does a Low-Price Guarantee Induce Lower Prices'' by looking into the retail gasoline industry in Quebec where there was a major branded firm which started a low-price guarantee back in 1996. Chapter 2 does a consumer welfare analysis of low-price guarantees to drive police indications and offers a new explanation of the firms' incentives to adopt a low-price guarantee. Chapter 3 develops the energy performance indicators (EPIs) to measure energy efficiency of the manufacturing plants in pulp, paper and paperboard industry.</p><p>Chapter 1 revisits the traditional view that a low-price guarantee results in higher prices by facilitating collusion. Using accurate market definitions and station-level data from the retail gasoline industry in Quebec, I conducted a descriptive analysis based on stations and price zones to compare the price and sales movement before and after the guarantee was adopted. I find that, contrary to the traditional view, the stores that offered the guarantee significantly decreased their prices and increased their sales. I also build a difference-in-difference model to quantify the decrease in posted price of the stores that offered the guarantee to be 0.7 cents per liter. While this change is significant, I do not find the response in comeptitors' prices to be significant. The sales of the stores that offered the guarantee increased significantly while the competitors' sales decreased significantly. However, the significance vanishes if I use the station clustered standard errors. Comparing my observations and the predictions of different theories of modeling low-price guarantees, I conclude the empirical evidence here supports that the low-price guarantee is a simple commitment device and induces lower prices. </p><p>Chapter 2 conducts a consumer welfare analysis of low-price guarantees to address the antitrust concerns and potential regulations from the government; explains the firms' potential incentives to adopt a low-price guarantee. Using station-level data from the retail gasoline industry in Quebec, I estimated consumers' demand of gasoline by a structural model with spatial competition incorporating the low-price guarantee as a commitment device, which allows firms to pre-commit to charge the lowest price among their competitors. The counterfactual analysis under the Bertrand competition setting shows that the stores that offered the guarantee attracted a lot more consumers and decreased their posted price by 0.6 cents per liter. Although the matching stores suffered a decrease in profits from gasoline sales, they are incentivized to adopt the low-price guarantee to attract more consumers to visit the store likely increasing profits at attached convenience stores. Firms have strong incentives to adopt a low-price guarantee on the product that their consumers are most price-sensitive about, while earning a profit from the products that are not covered in the guarantee. I estimate that consumers earn about 0.3% more surplus when the low-price guarantee is in place, which suggests that the authorities should not be concerned and regulate low-price guarantees. In Appendix B, I also propose an empirical model to look into how low-price guarantees would change consumer search behavior and whether consumer search plays an important role in estimating consumer surplus accurately.</p><p>Chapter 3, joint with Gale Boyd, describes work with the pulp, paper, and paperboard (PP&PB) industry to provide a plant-level indicator of energy efficiency for facilities that produce various types of paper products in the United States. Organizations that implement strategic energy management programs undertake a set of activities that, if carried out properly, have the potential to deliver sustained energy savings. Energy performance benchmarking is a key activity of strategic energy management and one way to enable companies to set energy efficiency targets for manufacturing facilities. The opportunity to assess plant energy performance through a comparison with similar plants in its industry is a highly desirable and strategic method of benchmarking for industrial energy managers. However, access to energy performance data for conducting industry benchmarking is usually unavailable to most industrial energy managers. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), through its ENERGY STAR program, seeks to overcome this barrier through the development of manufacturing sector-based plant energy performance indicators (EPIs) that encourage U.S. industries to use energy more efficiently. In the development of the energy performance indicator tools, consideration is given to the role that performance-based indicators play in motivating change; the steps necessary for indicator development, from interacting with an industry in securing adequate data for the indicator; and actual application and use of an indicator when complete. How indicators are employed in EPA’s efforts to encourage industries to voluntarily improve their use of energy is discussed as well. The chapter describes the data and statistical methods used to construct the EPI for plants within selected segments of the pulp, paper, and paperboard industry: specifically pulp mills and integrated paper & paperboard mills. The individual equations are presented, as are the instructions for using those equations as implemented in an associated Microsoft Excel-based spreadsheet tool.</p> / Dissertation

In 1999, California Air Resources Board (CARB) implemented a regulation that required all gasoline cars sold in California be fitted with an Onboard Refueling Vapor Recovery System (ORVR). The ORVR system is designed to prevent Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) from escaping into the atmosphere during refuelling by storing the gas vapours in a carbon canister. Due to the complex nature of the fuel system, making design changes could have large implications on the ORVR performance of the vehicle. It is therefore desirable to develop a CFD model that can predict the effects of design changes, thereby reducing the need to perform physical tests on each design iteration. This master thesis project was performed at the Fuel Systems department at Volvo Cars in order to help reduce project lead times and product development costs by incorporating CFD as a part of the fuel system development cycle. The CFD results obtained were validated through experimental tests that were also performed as part of this project. In this master thesis project, a CFD model was developed to simulate the refuelling of gasoline for a California specification Volvo XC90 with an OPW-11B pump pistol. The model was set up in STAR-CCM+ using the Eulerian Volume of Fluid model for multiphase flow, the RANS realizable k-epsilon turbulence model and the two layer all y+ wall treatment. The effects of the carbon canister were modelled as a porous baffle interface in the simulations where viscous and inertial resistances of the porous media were adjusted to obtain a desired pressure drop across the canister. This method proved to be a suitable simplification for this study. The effects of evaporation as well as a chemical adsorption model for the carbon canister have been excluded from the project due to time limitations. It was found that the CFD simulations were in good agreement with the experimental results, especially with respect to capturing the overall behaviour of the fuel system during refuelling. It was found that resolving the flow spatially (and temporally) in the filler pipe was a crucial part in ensuring solver stability. A pressure difference between experiment and simulation was also observed as a consequence of excluding evaporation from the CFD model. After the CFD model had been verified and validated, changes to different parts of the fuel system were investigated to observe their effects on ORVR performance. These included changing the recirculation line diameter, changing the carbon canister properties and changing the angle of how the pump pistol was inserted into the capless unit. It was found that the recirculation line diameter is a very sensitive design parameter and increasing the diameter would result in fuel vapour leaking back out into the atmosphere. Similarly, increasing the back pressure by swapping to a different carbon canister would result in the leakage of fuel vapour. On the other hand, insignificant changes in system behaviour were observed when the fuel pistol angle was changed.

[pt] O petróleo é uma mistura complexa de hidrocarbonetos (50 a 95 por cento) contendo traços de compostos inorgânicos (principalmente de S, N, O e metais pesados). Elementos traço são normalmente encontrados no petróleo como ocorrência natural, associados ao processo de formação. Embora presentes apenas em quantidades pequenas (níveis de microgramag−1 ou ng g−1), sua determinação é de grande importância, devido seu alto potencial de contaminação do meio ambiente e de interferência durante o processo de refino. Estes elementos podem causar corrosão nas torres de refino, envenenar catalisadores e/ou causar reações secundárias indesejáveis nas operações de refino. Além disso, os metais pesados, quando presentes nos derivados de petróleo, são relacionados ao seu mau desempenho, redução da sua estabilidade térmica por catalisar reações oxidativas e, no caso da nafta, interferência nos processos petroquímicos. Os riscos ambientais dependem da toxidade e da concentração de cada elemento, bem como a interferência no refino depende do metal e de sua concentração. Assim, foram estudados procedimentos rápidos, simples, exatos e precisos para a determinação de elementos traço em petróleo e alguns derivados pela espectrometria de absorção atômica com forno de grafite. Para amostras de diesel, gasolina e nafta, são propostos procedimentos para a determinação de As e Mn em nível de ng mL−1. A estabilização das amostras foi necessária e obtida pela formação de sistemas de três componentes, preparadas pela mistura de volumes adequados da amostra, do propan-1-ol e da solução aquosa de HNO3, resultando em um meio unifásico, indefinidamente estável. A utilização de modificação de matriz foi investigada. A otimização multivariada definiu a composição ótima da microemulsão, bem como o programa de temperatura. Os limites de detecção nas amostras originais para As foram 1,8, 1,2 e 1,5 ng mL−1 e para Mn foram 0,6, 0,5 e 0,3 ng mL−1 para diesel, gasolina e nafta, respectivamente. A exatidão dos métodos foi confirmada por testes de recuperação e por análise de um conjunto de amostras comerciais por procedimentos comparativos independentes. Para amostras de petróleo, são propostos procedimentos para a determinação direta de Ni, Cu, Fe e V, usando um acessório de amostragem de sólidos, sem qualquer prétratamento da amostra. Uma solução de Pd + Triton X-100 foi utilizada como modificador químico. As temperaturas de pirólise e atomização, bem como a massa do Pd foram definidas por otimização multivariada. Os limites de detecção nas condições otimizadas foram 230, 10, 200 e 800 pg de Ni, Cu, Fe e V, respectivamente. A exatidão dos métodos foi confirmada pela análise de materiais de referência certificados de petróleo, bem como por comparação com métodos independentes. Para todos os procedimentos propostos, a calibração com solução analítica aquosa foi possível. / [en] Petroleum is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons (50 to 95 percent) and nonhydrocarbons (mainly S, N, O and heavy metal compounds). Metallic traces are normally found in petroleum as naturally occurring elements associated to the formation process. Although present only in small amounts (Microgram −1 or ng g−1 levels), their determination is of great interest because of their high potential of environmental contamination and interference in the refining process. They may corrode refinery equipment, poison and foul catalysts and/or cause undesirable side reactions in refinery operations. Moreover, heavy metals present in petroleum derivates such as diesel, gasoline and naphtha are related to poor performance and reduction of their thermal stability. Thus, fast, simple and reliable procedures for the determination of trace metals in petroleum and its derivates by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry were studied. For diesel, gasoline and naphtha samples, procedures for the determination of As and Mn (ng mL−1 levels) are proposed. Sample stabilization was necessary and achieved by the formation of three component system prepared by mixing appropriate volumes of the samples, propan-1-ol and nitric acid aqueous solution, resulting in a one-phase medium indefinitely stable (microemulsion). The use of matrix modification was also investigated. Multivariate optimization defined the optimum microemulsion composition as well as the temperature program. The limits of detection in the original samples for As were 1.8, 1.2 and 1.5 ng ml−1 while for Mn they were 0.6, 0.5 and 0.3 ng mL-1 for diesel, gasoline and naphtha, respectively. Methods accuracies were confirmed by recoveries tests and the analysis of a set of commercial samples by the proposed and independent comparative procedures. For petroleum samples, procedures for the direct determination of Ni, Cu, Fe and V using a solid sampling accessory, without any sample pre- treatment, are proposed. A Pd+Triton X-100 solution was used as chemical modifier. The pyrolysis and atomization temperatures, as well as the Pd mass were defined by multivariate optimization. The limits of detection at the optimized conditions were 230, 10, 200 and 800 pg for Ni, Cu, Fe and V, respectively. Methods` accuracies were confirmed by the analysis of oil certified reference materials as well as by comparison with independent methods. For all proposed procedures, calibration using aqueous analytical solutions was possible.

O objetivo desta pesquisa foi o desenvolvimento de métodos para: determinação simultânea de Cr/Fe/Ni/V em óleo cru; determinação simultânea de Co/Cu/Pb/Se em óleo cru, gasolina e diesel; determinação monoelementar de Si em óleo cru, gasolina e diesel; e determinação de espécies porfirínicas de Fe/Ni/V em óleo cru, utilizando ultracentrifugação e extração em ponto nuvem, por espectrometria de absorção atômica com forno de grafite e detecção simultânea (SIMAAS). Foram estudadas as condições de preparo das amostras por emulsão, empregando Triton X-100® como surfactante e hexano ou clorofórmio como solventes diluentes do óleo cru. Nas melhores condições, as emulsões foram preparadas em 6% (m v-1) de Triton X-100® com o óleo cru previamente diluído com 125 &#181;L de hexano (nos métodos para as determinações totais dos elementos) ou diluído com 400 &#181;L de clorofórmio (no método para a determinação das espécies porfirínicas). No método envolvendo a determinação simultânea total de Cr/Fe/Ni/V não foi utilizada agitação ultrassônica devido à pequena massa de óleo necessária (50 mg) para análise. Por outro lado, a agitação ultrassônica foi essencial para possibilitar a estabilização de maiores massas de óleo cru (200 mg e 400 mg) na emulsão. A estabilidade da emulsão só foi melhorada com agitação ultrassônica, antes da etapa de diluição com água. Nessa condição, foi possível obter emulsões estáveis com 200 mg ou 400 mg de óleo cru, por 30 min ou mais de 8 h, respectivamente. O programa de aquecimento do forno de grafite foi avaliado em cada caso, com e sem uso de diferentes modificadores químicos (Pd e Mg), especialmente nos métodos de determinação simultânea, em que foi necessário adotar condições de compromisso. Para a determinação monoelementar de Si foi verificado melhora nos parâmetros analíticos (sensibilidade e repetibilidade) com o uso de NbC como modificador permanente combinado com 20 &#181;g de Pd como modificador químico co-injetado. Os LODs estimados para Cr (0,07 &#181;g g-1), Fe (2,15 &#181;g g-1), Ni (1,25 &#181;g g-1), V (1,25 &#181;g g-1), Co (0,02 &#181;g g-1), Cu (0,03 &#181;g g-1), Pb (0,04 &#181;g g-1), Se (0,11 &#181;g g-1) e Si (0,16 &#181;g g-1) foram suficientemente baixos para permitir as determinações dos elementos com boas precisão e exatidão. Análises de materiais de referência forneceram resultados a um nível de confiança de 95%, quando aplicado o teste t>/i> de Student. O fracionamento de porfirinas de Fe/Ni/V foi feito em emulsão de óleo cru combinando com a extração por ponto nuvem (CPE) e ultracentrifugação. Nesse estudo, foi verificado a necessidade do uso de 0,1 mol L-1 de HCl para extração dos elementos associados a espécies organometálicas não porfirínicas. Após a ultracentrifugação da emulsão de óleo cru, os alfaltenos e material particulado foram separados e no sobrenadante permaneceram espécies inorgânicas, compostos organometálicos leves e porfirinas de Fe, Ni e V. Após CPE de outra emulsão de óleo cru permaneceram na fase aquosa espécies inorgânicas e composto organometálicos leves. As concentrações das porfirinas de Fe, Ni e V foram determinadas após a subtração dos resultados obtidos no primeiro (ultracentrifugação) e segundo (CPE) procedimentos. / The objective of this research was the methods development for: simultaneous determination of Cr/Fe/Ni/V in crude oil; simultaneous determination of Co/Cu/Pb/Se in crude oil, gasoline and diesel; determination of Si in crude oil, gasoline and diesel; and determination of porphyrin species of Fe/Ni/V in crude oil using graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry with simultaneous detection (SIMAAS). It was studied the conditions for the emulsion sample preparation, employing Triton X-100® as surfactant and hexane or chloroform as diluent of the crude oil. Under the best conditions, the emulsions were prepared in 6% (m v-1) of Triton X-100® with crude oil previously diluted with 125 &#181;l of hexane (in methods for total determination of elements) or diluted with 400 &#181;l of chloroform (in the method for determination of porfhyrin species). In the method for the simultaneous determination of Cr/Fe/Ni/V it was not necessary to use ultrasonic agitation due to the small mass of oil needed (50 mg) for analysis. On the other hand, ultrasonic agitation was essential to enable the stabilization of larger masses of crude oil (200 mg and 400 mg) in emulsion. The emulsion stability was improved with ultrasonic agitation, before dilution step with water. In this condition, it was possible to obtain stable emulsions with 200 mg or 400 m;g of crude oil, for 30 min or more than 8 h, respectively. The heating program of graphite furnace was evaluated in each case, with and without use of different chemical modifiers (Pd and Mg), especially in the methods for simultaneous determination, in which was necessary to adopt compromise conditions. For Si determination, was verified significant improvement in analytical parameters (sensitivity and repeatability) with the use of NbC as permanent modifier, combined with co-injected 20 &#181;g of Pd as chemical modifier. The LODs estimated for Cr (0.07 &#181;g g-1), Fe (2.15 &#181;g g-1), Ni (1.25 &#181;g g-1), V (1.25 &#181;g g-1), Co (0.03 &#181;g g-1), Cu (0.03 &#181;g g-1), Pb (0.04 &#181;g g-1), Se (0.11 &#181;g g-1) and Si (0.16 &#181;g g-1) were low enough to allow measurements of the elements with great precision and accuracy. Analysis of reference materials provided results at confidence level of 95%, when applied to the Student\'s t-test. The Porphyrin fractionation of Fe/Ni/V was done on crude oil emulsion by combining cloud point extraction (CPE) and ultracentrifugation. In this method, 0.1 mol L-1 of HCl must be used for extraction of elements associated with the organometallic species different of porfhyrins. After the ultracentrifugation of crude oil emulsion, asfalthene and particulate matter were separated and in the supernatant remained inorganic species, organometallic compounds and porphyrins of Fe, Ni and V. After CPE of another emulsion of crude oil, remained in the aqueous phase only the inorganic and organometallic compound species. The porphyrin concentrations of Fe, Ni and V were determined after the subtraction of the results obtained in the supernatant from the first (centrifugation) and second (CPE) procedures.

A utilização de combustíveis alternativos em MCI, visa a substituição ou a redução do consumo de combustíveis fósseis. Qualquer estudo do desenvolvimento de métodos e técnicas que melhore o desempenho dos motores usando combustíveis alternativos é de grande importância tecnológica, econômica e social. Com este fim, foi feito este trabalho de pesquisa, o qual consiste em ensaiar um motor usando misturas de 37% e 50% de etanol na gasolina. O etanol utilizado neste trabalho apresentou um grau alcoólico de 92 INPM aproximadamente. Os ensaios foram feitos em taxas de compressão 8:1, 9.5:1 e 11:1. Foi avaliada a influência dos diferentes parâmetros para um máximo de eficiência e um mínimo de poluição, aproveitando as vantagens de ambos combustíveis, já que, a gasolina tem alto poder calorífico e baixo índice octano, e o etanol tem baixo poder calorífico e elevado índice de octana. O combustível ideal deveria ter ambos os fatores elevados. Para verificar os resultados esperados, foram feitos neste trabalho, estudos cinéticos químicos da combustão a partir do desempenho do motor e geração de gases. Para cumprir este fim foram necessários estudos que incluem o diagnóstico do processo de combustão, já que, o diagnóstico do processo de combustão fornece toda a informação necessária, às análises de aspectos críticos do funcionamento do motor e de emissões. Comprovou-se que a velocidade da reação de oxidação do etanol é maior que da gasolina e que, o motor aproveita mais a energia química do etanol que da gasolina. / The use of alternative fuels in Internal Combustion engine, seeks the substitution or the reduction of the consumption of fossil fuels. Any study of the development of methods and techniques that it improves the acting of the motors using alternative fuels are of great technological, economic and social importance. With this goal, it was made this research work, which consists of tests in an engine using blends of 37% and 50% of ethanol in the gasoline. The ethanol used in this work presented an alcoholic degree of 92 INPM approximately. The tests were made in compression ratio 8:1, 9.5:1 and 11:1. The influence of the different parameters was evaluated for a maximum of efficiency and a minimum of pollution, taking advantage of the advantages of both fuels, since, the gasoline has high PCI and low octane index, and the ethanol low PCI and high octane index. The ideal fuel should have high both factors. To verify the expected results, they were done in this work, studies kinetic chemists of the combustion starting from engine performance and generation of gases. To execute this goal they were necessary studies that include the diagnostics of the combustion process, since, the diagnostics of the combustion process supplies all the necessary information, to the analyses of engine critical aspects operation and emissions. Was proven that the speed of the ethanol reaction of oxidation is larger than gasoline and that the engine takes advantage of more the ethanol chemical energy that of the gasoline.

O objetivo deste trabalho foi desenvolver métodos para a determinação simultânea de Pb, Si e P em gasolinas por ICP OES em conformidade com a Agência Nacional de Petróleo (ANP). O mercado da gasolina no Brasil é regulado pela Agência Nacional do Petróleo (ANP) e pela Lei Federal 9.478/97 (Lei do Petróleo) e, conforme Resolução ANP n°40, de 25.10.2013, a determinação de chumbo é exigida quando houver suspeita de contaminação. O chumbo era adicionado, desde 1922 para elevar o índice antidetonante da gasolina, mas devido a sua toxicidade foi mundialmente substituído. A determinação do silício passou a ser exigida em 1 de Janeiro de 2014 nas gasolinas, porque frações leves contaminadas com silício, quando usadas como combustíveis, podem gerar problemas aos motores automotivos, uma vez que os aditivos antiespumantes, a base de oligômeros contendo silício, são adicionados durante o processo de refino. O fósforo é um aditivo estimulante da extração do petróleo, sua determinação também é exigida quando houver suspeita de contaminação, pois concentrações acima do limite máximo podem desativar os catalisadores dos carros. No preparo de amostras foram utilizadas duas estratégias, a primeira diluição da gasolina com solventes orgânicos 10% da gasolina e 90% de Premisolv-Constan, com a vantagem da int rodução direta, porém necessita câmara refrigerada e fluxo de O2. E preparo da amostra por emulsão tipo óleo/água (O/W), preparada utilizando 1 mL de gasolina com 3 mL de surfactante Tergitol TMN-6&#174; (20% m v-1), o qual foi escolhido entre 4 surfactantes (TritonTM X-100,TritonTM X-114, TergitolTMTMN-6 e TergitolTM 15-S-9) por ter apresentado melhor desempenho na formação da emulsão e menor branco analítico. Essa segunda estratégia apresentou vantagens em relação a primeira, pois reduz a introdução da matéria orgânica para 10% e dispensa o uso de câmara especial e fluxo de O2. As amostras foram analisadas com a construção de curvas de adição padrão a fim de eliminar os efeitos de matriz. Também foram analisadas amostras dopadas com padrão orgânico nas concentrações dos limites estabelecidos pela Resolução ANP. As recuperações foram de 86% a 98% para Pb, 90% a 106% para Si e 86% a 110% para P. Portanto o método desenvolvido demonstrou a possibilidade da determinação simultânea de Si, Pb e P nos limites estabelecidos pela legislação (Pb = 5 mg LTM-1, P = 1,3 mg L-1 e Si limite máximo ainda não estabelecido) e está de acordo com a Química Verde e Gestão de Saúde Meio Ambiente e Segurança. / The objective of this work was to develop methods for the simultaneous determination of Pb, Si and P in gasoline by ICP-OES in accordance with the National Petroleum Agency (ANP). The Brazilian gasoline market is regulated by the National Petroleum Agency (ANP) and Federal Law 9.478 / 97 (Petroleum Law) and according to ANP Resolution No. 40, dated 10.25.2013, the determination of lead is required when there is suspected contamination. Lead was added since 1922 to raise the antiknock index of gasoline, but because of its toxicity it has been worldwide replaced. The determination of silicon was required on 1 January 2014 in gasoline. Light fractions contaminated with silicon, when used as fuel, can cause problems for automotive engines, since antifoaming additives, based on silicon-containing oligomers, are added during the refining process. Phosphorus is a stimulating additive to petroleum extraction; its determination is also required when contamination is suspected, as concentrations above the upper limit can deactivate the catalysts of the cars. In the preparation of samples, two strategies were used, the first dilution of gasoline with organic solvents 10% of the gasoline and 90% of Premisolv-Constan, with the advantage of direct introduction, however, requires refrigerated chamber and O2 flow. Preparation of the sample by oil / water (O / W) emulsion, using 1 ml of gasoline with 3 ml of Tergitol TMN-6 surf surfactant (20% m v-1), which was chosen among 4 surfactants (TritonTM X-100, TritonTM X-114, TergitolTM TMN-6 e TergitolTM 15-S-9), because it showed better performance in the formation of the emulsion and lower analytical blank. This second strategy presents advantages over the first one because it reduces the introduction of the organic matter to 10% and dispenses with the use of special chamber and O2 flow. Samples were analyzed by constructing standard addition curves to eliminate matrix effects. We also analyzed doped samples with organic standards in the concentrations of the limits established by ANP Resolution. The recoveries were 86% to 98% for Pb, 90% to 106% for Si and 86% to 110% for P. Therefore, the method developed demonstrated the possibility of simultaneous determination of Si, Pb and P within the limits established by the legislation (Pb = 5 mg L-1, P = 1,3 mg L-1 and Si maximum limit not yet established) and is in accordance with the Green Chemistry and Health Management Environment and Safety.

Neste trabalho foram desenvolvidos métodos analíticos para a determinação simultânea de As, Co e Se em petróleo, gasolina e óleo lubrificante por espectrometria de absorção atômica com atomização eletrotérmica. As estratégias de preparo das amostras foram baseadas em emulsão de gasolina e petróleo e digestão ácida assistida por microondas para o óleo lubrificante. Os programas de aquecimento foram otimizados pela obtenção de curvas de pirólise e atomização de soluções analíticas de referência, emulsões e digeridos das amostras, na presença e ausência do modificador químico Pd + Mg. As emulsões de gasolina foram preparadas em tubos de vidro (Pirex®) com adição de Triton X-100, ácido nítrico e água Milli-Q. Na preparação das emulsões de petróleo foi necessário realizar a diluição da amostra com hexano, seguida da adição de Triton X-100, ácido nítrico e água Milli-Q. As emulsões foram sonicadas por 2 min. As melhores condições para a preparação das emulsões foram encontradas avaliando-se as intensidades dos sinais de absorbância de cada elemento em função da variação da quantidade das amostras, surfactante, teor ácido e solvente. As amostras de óleo lubrificante foram digeridas com ácido nítrico e peróxido de hidrogênio e analisadas após a diluição com água Milli-Q. As curvas analíticas de calibração foram preparadas em 2% (v/v) de HNO3 + 6% (v/v) de Triton X-100, 1% (v/v) de HNO3 + 7% (v/v) de Triton X-100 + 5% (v/v) de hexano, 0,1 % (v/v) de HNO3, para gasolina, petróleo e óleo lubrificante, respectivamente. Os limites de detecção (n=10) foram 7,2 µg L-1 para As, 1,0 µg L-1 para Co e 5,0 µg L-1 para Se em gasolina; 7,0 µg L-1 para As, 1,3 µg L-1 para Co e 5,7 µg L-1 para Se em petróleo; e 3,9 µg L-1 para As, 1,0 µg L-1 para Co e 4,0 µg L-1 para Se para óleo lubrificante. As recuperações obtidas foram de 94 a 112% para adição de 20 µg L-1 de As, 92 a 117% para 10 µg L-1 de Co e 94 a 129% para 20 µg L-1 de Se adicionados nas amostras de gasolina (n=5), petróleo (n=4) e óleo lubrificante (n=4). / In this work analytical methods were developed for simultaneous determination of As, Co and Se in gasoline, petroleum and lubricating oil by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry. Strategies for the sample preparation were based on the emulsion for gasoline and petroleum and acid digestion using microwave oven for lubricating oil. The heating program optimizations were carried out using pyrolysis and atomization temperatures of analytical reference solutions, emulsions and digestate of sample solutions, in presence and absence of Pd + Mg as chemical modifiers. The gasoline emulsions were prepared in Pyrex® lass tubes by adding Triton X-100, nitric acid and Milli-Q water. For the petroleum emulsion preparation it was necessary the previous dissolution of sample with hexane, as well as Triton X-100, nitric acid and Milli-Q water addition. All emulsions were submitted to sonication for 2 minutes. The optimization of emulsifications were done by the evaluation of absorbance signals versus the variations of sample quantity, surfactant, nitric acid and solvent concentration. Lubricating oil samples were digested using a mixture of nitric acid and hydrogen peroxide and analyzed after dilution with Milli-Q water. The calibration curves were prepared in 2% (v/v) HNO3 + 6% (v/v) Triton X-100, 1% (v/v) HNO3 + 7% (v/v) Triton X-100 + 5% (v/v) hexane, 0,1 % (v/v) de HNO3, for gasoline, petroleum and lubricating oil, respectively. The estimated detection limits (n=10) were 7.2 µg L-1 for As, 1.0 µg L-1 for Co, and 5.0 µg L-1 for Se in gasoline; 7.0 µg L-1 for As, 1.3 µg L-1 for Co, and 5.7 µg L-1 for Se in petroleum; and 3.9 µg L-1 for As, 1.0 µg L-1 for Co, and 4.0 µg L-1 for Se in lubricating oil. Five gasoline, four petroleum and four lubricating oil samples were analyzed and spiked with As (20 µg L-1), Co (10 µg L-1) and Se (20 µg L-1). The obtained recoveries were 94 to 112% for As, 92 to 117% for Co and 94 to 129% for Se in gasoline, petroleum and lubricating oil, respectively.

O fenômeno da dispersão de preços é mais comum do que se supõe a partir da microeconomia básica. O presente estudo busca avaliar a importância dos custos de procura na dispersão de preços de gasolina e etanol no município de São Paulo. Para tanto, são utilizados como referenciais teóricos modelos de dispersão e estudos de estruturas de mercado. A parte empírica contempla duas etapas, na primeira é estimado qual o mercado relevante para o varejo de combustíveis e, posteriormente, a descrição da dispersão na área. Os dados dos preços de varejo são coletados semanalmente desde o ano de 2001 e a série histórica foi cedida pela Agência Nacional do Petróleo, Gás Natural e Biocombustíveis - ANP. Os resultados das estimações nos mostram que, apesar da dispersão, possivelmente existe maior relação com a heterogeneidade dos estabelecimentos do que com a busca do consumidor. / The price dispersion phenomenon is more common than might be supposed from basic microeconomics. This study aim to evaluate the importance of search costs in the dispersion of fuel prices in São Paulo city. As theoretical reference, we use models of price dispersion and market structures studies. The empirical part has two stages, first is estimated the relevant retail fuel market, and then we describe the dispersion in the area. The retail prices data of gasoline and ethanol have been collected since 2001 and the time series was provided by the Agência Nacional do Petróleo, Gás Natural e Biocombustíveis - ANP. The results shown that although there is dispersion it is more closely related to the establishments heterogeneity, than with consumer search.