My dissertation project utilizes a theoretical perspective derived from historical ecology to explore the trajectory in prehistoric subsistence that began with the initial colonization of the region and eventually led to the domestication of indigenous plants, such as goosefoot and maygrass, roughly 5,000 calendar years ago. Because a major handicap for exploring prehistoric subsistence in eastern North America is the rarity of sites with preserved flora and fauna, I apply formal models derived from behavioral ecology to stone tool assemblages and archaeological site distributions to evaluate models that have been proposed for the emergence of domesticated plants. Based on my results, I argue that the origins of plant domestication came about within the context of a boom/bust cycle that has its roots in the Late Pleistocene and culminated in the Mid-Holocene. More specifically, warming climate caused a significant peak in the availability of shellfish, oak, hickory, and deer, which generated a "tipping point" during the Middle Archaic period where hunter-gatherer groups narrowed their focus on these resources. After this "boom" ended, some groups shifted to other plant resources that they could intensively exploit in the same manner as oak and hickory, which included the suite of plants that were subsequently domesticated. This is likely due the combined effects of increasing population and declining returns from hunting, which is evident in my analysis of biface technological organization and site distributions from the lower Tennessee and Duck River Valleys. Consequently, these conclusions are an alternative to Smith's (2011) assertion that plant domestication in eastern North America came about as a result of gradual niche construction with no evidence for resource imbalance or population packing.

No description available.

The thesis raises questions concerning prehistoric conditions in a high mountain region in central Scandinavia; it focuses on the human use of stone and on hunting principally of reindeer. An analysis of how the stone material was utilized and an approach to how large mammals were hunted result in a synthesis describing one interpretation of how the vast landscape of a region in the central Scandinavian high mountains was used. With this major aim as a base questions were posed concerning the human use of stone resources and possible changes in this use. Preconditions for the occurrence of large mammals as game animals and for hunting are also highlighted. A general perspective is the long time period over which possible changes in the use of stone and hunting of big game, encompassing the Late Mesolithic, Neolithic, Bronze Age and to a certain extent the Early Iron Age. Considering the manufacture of flaked stone tools, debitage in the form of flakes from a dwelling, constitute the base where procurement and technology are essential. The occupation of the dwelling covers a period from the Late Mesolithic to the Bronze Age. Possible changes in lithic use are discussed based on an analysis of debitage which includes testing variables reflecting various steps in the process of flaked stone tool manufacture. Also, the results are discussed from a methodological aspect; the classificatory aspect of analyzing large flake assemblages is implied. The result of the flake analysis indicates differences in the use of stone from the Late Mesolithic to the Bronze Age/Early Iron Age. These differences are interpreted in a three-part chronological division and as theoretically proceeding in a manufacturing process of five steps including acquisition, reduction through three steps and use of completed tools. A pattern, dividing the Bronze Age use of stone from that of the Neolithic and Late Mesolithic is discerned and discussed in terms of changes in procurement strategies and technology. Also, social organization is touched upon. When approaching the issue of hunting the character of data differ; archaeological and palaeo-environmental data together comprise the base for a discussion of possible changes. This is based on a theoretical model applied in a hypothetical research design. Archaeological categories of remains relevant in hunting contexts together with ethnographic and traditional hunting techniques are discussed. They constitute the base and illustrate possible variables in the testing of the hypothetical model. Changes in the Holocene climate are clear, just as changes in the archaeological record are observable. Together these circumstances indicate changes in the hunting process. The structural changes in economy and society that occur in central and north Scandinavia during stone-using periods are discernible in the region studied here. / digitalisering@umu

The Green River region of western Kentucky has been a focus of Archaic period research since 1915. Currently, the region is playing an important role in discussions of Archaic hunter-gatherer cultural complexity. Unfortunately, many of the larger Green River sites contain several archaeological components ranging from the Early to Late Archaic periods. Understanding culture change requires that these multiple components somehow be sorted and addressed individually. Detailed re-analyses of Works Progress Administration (WPA) era artifact collections from two archaeological sites in the Green River region – the Baker (15Mu12) and Chiggerville (15Oh1) shell middens – indicate that these sites are relatively isolated Middle and Late Archaic components, respectively. The relatively unmixed character of Baker and Chiggerville makes these sites excellent candidates for evaluating aspects of complexity during the Archaic. After developing a theoretical basis for evaluating the relative complexity of the social organization of the Baker and Chiggerville site inhabitants on the basis of the material record they left behind, I employ detailed analyses of the bone, antler, and stone tools from these two sites to examine six microscalar aspects of complexity – technological organization, subsistence, specialization, leadership, communication networks, and exchange. These microscalar aspects of complexity all can be linked materially to the archaeological record of the Green River region and can be evaluated as proxies for changes in social organization among the hunter-gatherers who inhabited this region during the Middle and Late Archaic periods. Although the Baker assemblage indicated greater complexity in communication networks and certain proxies for leadership and technological organization, most indicators suggest that the Chiggerville site inhabitants were the more complexly organized group and were in the process of developing a tribal-like social formation. This research, therefore, tentatively supports the hypothesis of increasing complexity through time during the Archaic. However, marked differences in the technological strategies utilized by the Baker and Chiggerville site inhabitants indicates these groups may not have been historically related, thereby violating one of the primary assumptions of the project. If this alternative hypothesis is confirmed through additional research, then no conclusions concerning change through time can be derived from this study.

This study discusses the extent to which hunter-gatherer mobility strategies are changed by abrupt climate change events by monitoring changes in lithic assemblage compositions through the Pleistocene/Holocene Transition, from ca. 14,000 cal BP to 10,000 cal BP in northwest Europe, with a focus on the Younger Dryas Stadial event, which occurred around 12,900 cal BP to 11,700 cal BP. A set of predicted archaeological indicators were formed from existing theoretical models, based largely on Binford’s logistical and residential mobility model, with the expectation that a more residential mobility strategy would be used by hunter-gatherer-populations during warmer climatic phases (i.e. the Allerød and Preboreal) and a more logistical mobility strategy would be used during cold climatic phases (i.e. the Younger Dryas). The lithic assemblages from sites across northwest Europe were then compared with these expectations in order to determine if a shift from a more residential strategy to a more logistical strategy can be seen from the lithic record. Additionally, a further comparative dataset was collected from south Europe in order to determine if there were differences in the response to the Younger Dryas at lower latitudes where the impact of this event is assumed to be less severe. The results found that in northwest Europe there is evidence to suggest there was indeed a shift from a more residential strategy during the warm Allerød interstadial to a more logistical strategy during the Younger Dryas Stadial, and the adoption of a more residential strategy with the return of warmer conditions during the Preboreal. However, it appears that the Preboreal Interstadial shows significant differences between the Allerød Interstadial, with the Preboreal sharing more characteristics in common with the Younger Dryas. This has been interpreted as a response to the unstable climatic conditions reported from the environmental evidence in this region during the Preboreal, which may have limited the ability of hunter-gatherer populations to return to similar levels of residential mobility seen during the Allerød. The south Europe dataset provides evidence that the lesser impact of the Younger Dryas at lower latitudes brought about a more muted response by hunter-gatherer populations to this event when compared with the northwest. However, there appears to be a reversal of that seen in the northwest, with more logistically mobile populations during the Allerød and especially the Preboreal, and more residentially mobile populations during the Younger Dryas. This is despite the environmental evidence showing a very similar environmental response to the northwest, with a distinct opening of the landscape during the Younger Dryas. The apparent difference in mobility strategies appear to be more related to the available faunal species within a region and their behaviour within their environment rather than directly to the climate. In the south, species such as red deer and ibex are the main source of faunal subsistence throughout the Pleistocene/Holocene Transition, unchanged by shifts in temperature and environment, but the way in which hunter-gatherers would hunt such species would be expected to change in more wooded environments compared with more open environments. If we compare this with the northwest, there is evidence of a distinct change from hunted prey, such as red deer, during the Allerød and Preboreal, to reindeer and horse during the Younger Dryas (although faunal preservation is poor in this region). With this shift to a more mobile prey species, along with a harsher, more open environment it may be more suitable to practise a more logistical strategy. Additionally, the instability of the Preboreal may have also changed the environment on a smaller scale, which would have required the hunting of warmer climate prey in shifting local environments, much like that of the Younger Dryas in south Europe. This might explain the differences seen between the Allerød and the Preboreal. Overall, there appears to be strong evidence supporting the theory that colder, harsher climates promote a more logistically mobile response from hunter-gatherer populations as seen in the northwest of Europe, and that there was a more muted, different response to the Younger Dryas in the lower latitudes of south Europe. However, it is the opinion here that changes in human mobility are not controlled directly be climatic conditions, rather controlled by the available major prey species and their behaviour in changing environments.

Three archaeological cases from different areas of the Andes are employed to study the rise of social and cultural complexity in varying social and economic contexts, with the intention of distinguishing certain environmental and cultural factors in each case. The purpose also is to search not only for differences but for commonalities to be used for cross-cultural comparisons and to learn more about the developmental cultural history of the societies representing these cases. / En el presente trabajo se analizan tres casos de diferentes áreas de los Andes para estudiar el incremento de la complejidad cultural en contextos sociales y económicos variados con el fin de distinguir factores definidos de carácter ambiental y cultural en cada caso. El propósito final es el de la búsqueda de diferencias, así como de las características en común que se utilizan para hacer comparaciones culturales y para aprender más acerca de la historia del desarrollo cultural de las sociedades que representan estos ejemplos.

In this paper, several lines of evidence (geology, paleoenvironment, lithic and faunal analysis, among others) from the Calera site (Sierras Bayas, pampean region, Argentina) are summarized and discussed. The cultural deposit seems to be a ritual site, formed by the occurrence of several ceremonies during the late Holocene. In the Calera site, four cubetas (pits) were intentionally excavated, between ca. 3400 and 1750 years BP, and filled with a great amount and variety of archaeological materials as well as alochtonous sediments. Among the recovered materials, there were more than 6000 of lithic artefacts, 310 pottery sherds (some of them with antropomorphic motifs), 1760 pieces of mineral pigments, 4 marine molluscs, a shell bead, a granite axe, several instrument made of bone and deer antler, and a phallic statuette. A yet undetermined number (several thousands) of faunal remains were from 16 different mammal species (guanaco, pampean deer, carnivores, mesomammals, micromammals, among others), 6 avian species, 3 fishes and probably reptiles. The exceptional features of the site allow the study of social and ideational aspects of the pampean hunter-gatherers and discussion of the archaeological signatures of the site in terms of non-hierarchical societies. / En este trabajo se discuten y resumen las evidencias obtenidas como resultado de estudios multidisciplinarios —geológicos, paleoambientales, líticos, arqueofaunísticos y tafonómicos, entre otros— del sitio Calera, ubicado en las Sierras Bayas, región pampeana, Argentina. Este sitio se presenta como un depósito excepcional de origen ritual producido probablemente como consecuencia de varias ceremonias realizadas en las inmediaciones. En este lugar se registraron cuatro cubetas excavadas intencionalmente, fechadas entre c. 3400 y 1750 a.p., que fueron rellenadas con materiales arqueológicos y sedimentos alóctonos. Entre los materiales se destacan más de 6000 artefactos líticos de diferentes materias primas locales y no locales, aproximadamente 400 instrumentos líticos, 310 tiestos de alfarería (algunos con motivos figurativos antropomorfos), 1760 restos de pigmentos minerales, cuatro moluscos marinos, una hacha de granito, una cuenta de valva, una estatuilla cilíndrica decorada de forma fálica y varios instrumentos sobre hueso y astas. También se registró un número aún indeterminado (varios miles) de restos óseos de 16 especies de mamíferos —entre ellos guanaco, venado, carnívoros, mesomamíferos y micromamíferos—, seis aves, tres peces y, posiblemente, reptiles. Las características excepcionales del sitio permiten abordar aspectos ideacionales y sociales de los cazadores recolectores pampeanos y discutir la visibilidad arqueológica de los sitios de encuentro.

The central issue of this paper is that social complexity in South Andean hunter-gatherers is related to an emergent process of regional economic intensification that began in the Middle Holocene period. This process involved a strategy of economic specialization in the use of wild camelids, followed by a diversifying strategy related to the domestication of plants and animals, and the subsequent establishment of long-distance exchange networks. Taking into account this model, this paper assesses the social strategies involved in the generation of heterogeneous social organization and its main components. / En este trabajo se propone que la complejidad social en los grupos de cazadores-recolectores surandinos es un producto del proceso de intensificación económica que se dio en la región a partir del Holoceno Medio. Este proceso involucró una estrategia de especialización económica en el uso de los camélidos silvestres, seguida por otra de diversificación relacionada con la domesticación de animales y plantas, y el establecimiento de un sistema de intercambio a larga distancia. A partir de esta propuesta se tratarán de evaluar las estrategias sociales involucradas en la generación de una organización social heterogénea y se discutirán sus componentes más relevantes.

abstract: Food system and health characteristics were evaluated across the last Waorani hunter-gatherer group in Amazonian Ecuador and a remote neighboring Kichwa indigenous subsistence agriculture community. Hunter-gatherer food systems like the Waorani foragers may not only be nutritionally, but also pharmaceutically beneficial because of high dietary intake of varied plant phytochemical compounds. A modern diet that reduces these dietary plant defense phytochemicals below levels typical in human evolutionary history may leave humans vulnerable to diseases that were controlled through a foraging diet. Few studies consider the health impact of the recent drastic reduction of plant phytochemical content in the modern global food system, which has eliminated essential components of food because they are not considered "nutrients". The antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory nature of the food system may not only regulate infectious pathogens and inflammatory disease, but also support beneficial microbes in human hosts, reducing vulnerability to chronic diseases. Waorani foragers seem immune to certain infections with very low rates of chronic disease. Does returning to certain characteristics of a foraging food system begin to restore the human body microbe balance and inflammatory response to evolutionary norms, and if so, what implication does this have for the treatment of disease? Several years of data on dietary and health differences across the foragers and the farmers was gathered. There were major differences in health outcomes across the board. In the Waorani forager group there were no signs of infection in serious wounds such as 3rd degree burns and spear wounds. The foragers had one-degree lower body temperature than the farmers. The Waorani had an absence of signs of chronic diseases including vision and blood pressure that did not change markedly with age while Kichwa farmers suffered from both chronic diseases and physiological indicators of aging. In the Waorani forager population, there was an absence of many common regional infectious diseases, from helminthes to staphylococcus. Study design helped control for confounders (exercise, environment, genetic factors, non-phytochemical dietary intake). This study provides evidence of the major role total phytochemical dietary intake plays in human health, often not considered by policymakers and nutritional and agricultural scientists. / Dissertation/Thesis / Ph.D. Anthropology 2012

As pesquisas em ecologia isotópica aplicadas à arqueologia têm se desenvolvido amplamente nas últimas duas décadas em todo o mundo, porém poucos trabalhos direcionados unicamente para essa área foram produzidos no país. Este trabalho tem por objetivo gerar dados para testar dois modelos contrastantes sobre as estratégias de subsistência empregadas por sociedades pré-históricas do Brasil Central, desde o final do Período Pleistoceno (ca. 12.000 anos A.P.) até o final do Holoceno utilizando isótopos estáveis como ferramenta de análise. Para tal foram utilizadas amostras de material ósseo arqueológico humano e faunístico provenientes de duas regiões do Brasil Central: Lagoa Santa e Vale do Peruaçu, Minas Gerais. Deste material foram extraídas amostras de colágeno que foram analisadas em um espectrômetro de massa a fim de obter valores de 13C e 15N. Os resultados obtidos para as populações humanas apontam para uma dieta onívora em ambas, com uma forte tendência ao consumo de recursos vegetais em comparação com as demais espécies analisadas da cadeia trófica. Os indivíduos mais jovens de Lagoa Santa (até 5 anos de idade) apresentaram uma diferença estatística significativa nos valores de 15N quando comparados aos demais indivíduos da mesma região, demonstrando assim uma tendência na população a um prolongamento da amamentação. Foram encontradas também evidências de uma possível alteração climática no Vale do Peruaçu a partir da variação de 15N em Kerodon rupestris no decorrer do Holoceno. O sítio de Santana do Riacho, na região de Lagoa Santa apresentou prováveis indícios da presença de milho com dois indivíduos de Cavia aperea que sinalizaram uma dieta tipicamente consumidora de plantas C4 (média 13C= -12,19 e 15N= 2,63) estatisticamente distinta dos demais indivíduos da amostra, entretanto como o espaço amostral é reduzido mais analises são necessárias para confirmar essa tendência. / Research in the field of isotopic ecology applied to archaeology has been in constant development for the past two decades, however only a few studies had been made towards this area in Brazil. This study has the objective of generating data to test two contrasting models regarding the strategies of subsistence used by pre-historical societies of Central Brazil, since the end of the Pleistocene (ca. 12.000 years B.P.) and during the Holocene using stable isotopes as an analytic tool. For such, there had been used faunistic and human archaeological bone samples, from two different regions of Central Brazil: Lagoa Santa and Vale do Peruaçu, Minas Gerais state. From this material collagen samples were extracted and, afterwards, analyzed in a mass spectrometer in order to obtain the 13C and 15N values. The results obtained for both human populations indicate a typically omnivorous diet, with a strong tendency towards vegetable consumption if compared with the other animals used in the trophic web characterization. The young human individuals from Lagoa Santa (up to 5 years old) show a statistically different 15N values if compared to the rest of the human remains from the same population, showing a tendency for extensive breastfeeding age. It was also found evidence of a possible climatic change at Vale do Peruaçu around Middle Holocene demonstrated by 15N variations in Kerodon rupestris. Santana do Riacho site, in the Lagoa Santa region showed probable indications of maize presence, as two Cavia aperea samples yielded typical C4 plant consumption (average 13C= -12.19 and 15N= 2.63) also proving to be statistically different from the other individuals of the same species in the whole sample, on the other hand as the sample size is too small and more analysis are needed in order to confirm this tendency.