Organizational leadership is predominantly male, even after decades of effort to even out this gap. The gender gap in corporal leadership was here assessed by investigating the possible effect of job advertisement configuration. Requesting a democratic or autocratic leadership style and high or low level of readiness for the leadership position in job advertisements was hypothesized to affect their appreciated appeal differently depending on the reader’s gender. A democratic leadership style and a low level of readiness requirement was thought to appeal more to women. Additionally, an effect of nearness to a manager of the same sex on the appreciated likelihood of applying for a leadership position was investigated, in line with the theory of same-sex role models. Seventy-nine male and seventy-seven female employees from a technical department within a global industrial company were included in the study where they rated manipulated company job advertisements’ appeal and filled out a survey. The results revealed no gender difference in the employees’ appeal ratings depending on the two variables. No difference in likelihood of applying for a leadership position was found, regardless of same-sex managerial nearness. The unique characteristics of the sample used induces a discussion of when advertisement wording matters and matters not.

This work in the theoretical part focuses on the role of men in a society and on the position of a woman. It also describes differences between men and women, differences in communication between a man and a woman and differences in a general perspective. It gives an insight in the process and phases of men being in love. It also gives an outlook on a man and a woman and their equal chances.

abstract: Past literature has indicated that the majority of people with alcohol problems never seek treatment and that this is especially true of women. Relatively few studies have investigated how different types of alcohol-related consequences longitudinally predict men and women's perceived need for treatment and their utilization of treatment services. The current study sought to expand the literature by examining whether gender moderates the links between four frequently endorsed types of consequences and perceived need for or actual utilization of treatment. Two-hundred thirty-seven adults ages 21-36 completed a battery of questionnaires at two time points five years apart. Results indicated that there were four broad types of consequences endorsed by both men and women. Multiple-group models and Wald chi square tests indicated that there were no significant relationships between consequences and treatment outcomes. No gender moderation was found but post-hoc power analyses indicated that the study was underpowered to detect moderation. Researchers need to continue to study factors that predict utilization of alcohol treatment services and the process of recovery so that treatment providers can better address the needs of people with alcohol-related consequences in the areas of referral procedures, clinical assessment, and treatment service provision and planning. / Dissertation/Thesis / Ph.D. Psychology 2013

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This study aims at investigating differences in derogatory word use between heteronormative rap artists and rap artists identifying with LGBTQ norms. A list of six profane words to be content analysed was constructed. These words were divided into three subcategories: those generally related to men (dick and nigga), women (bitch and pussy), or language in general (fuck and shit). The study examines the frequency of these derogatory words in randomly selected rap music and investigates how these frequencies differ in mainstream and LGBTQ artists' song lyrics. A content analysis of four randomly selected songs each from ten randomly selected mainstream artists and ten randomly selected LGBTQ artists was conducted. Two hypotheses that were derived from the literature (Wilson, 2007; Monk-Turner & Sylvertooth, 2008) were tested. It was expected that (1) general profanity (the use of fuck and shit) would occur most frequently in the lyrics of both mainstream and LGBTQ artists and that (2) derogatory words directed at women would not be as frequent in the lyrics of LGBTQ artists as in mainstream rappers' lyrics. On the contrary, the data show that profanities aimed at women occur more frequently in LGBTQ artists' lyrics. The data also show that general profanity is most common in LGBTQ artists' lyrics but not in the lyrics of mainstream artists, where profanities aimed at men was most frequent. However, there were several factors which affected the validity of the study. The issue of whether profane words are always used in a derogatory way in the songs or not is a big methodological shortcoming of the study in terms of accuracy. Furthermore, the small sample size indicates that one should be cautious about stating generalisations based on tendencies seen in the data.

This study aims to examine possible differences in the way male and female politicians answer questions in a news interview, with focus on hedging expressions, answer resistance strategies and negative mentions of other politicians and political parties.The study is based on analysis of 13 interviews with British politicians made for the BBC One programme The Andrew Marr show in 2013 and 2014. The data used for analysis is transcripts and recordings of the interviews, and the study uses conversation analytical tools to in detail examine the answers in relation to conversational phenomena and techniques.The results show several significant differences in the way men and women answer questions. Women use more hedging expressions, minimal response and overt resistance than men, whereas men covertly resist questions to a greater extent than women. Men also seem more likely to mention colleagues or other political parties in a negative manner in a way to pass blame. These results are discussed in relation to social structures in society as well as former studies on the matter.

This study measured the resistance to temptation of five-year-old children as related to their sex, Sunday school attendance, and mothers' working status; analyzed the mothers' parenting attitudes as influenced by work, church attendance, and family structure; and examined relationships between children's resistance to temptation and mothers' parenting attitudes.

This investigation examines how knowledge of a researcher's intent, as well as gender, influences the clinical judgments of mental health professionals in sex role research. Conscious awareness of the study's aim was manipulated by varying experimental instructions to minimize (not salient) or maximize (salient) sex role awareness. Subjects were mental health professionals who rated a protocol of a female or male pseudopatient exhibiting masculine, and lacking feminine, stereotyped behaviors. It was hypothesized that if sex biases affect judgments, more negative ratings should be assigned to a female with cross sex role behavior than to male-appropriate role behavior. Differences should be greater when subjects were unaware of the nature of the study.

Bakgrund: Cervikal dystoni är en neurologisk sjukdom som drabbar nackmuskulaturen med muskelsammandragningar som kan resultera i felställningar, smärta och tremor. Behandlingen består i dagsläget av injektioner med Botulinumtoxin och fysioterapi. Syfte: Syftet med denna studie var att undersöka den självrapporterade nivån av fysisk aktivitet och sambandet mellan fysisk aktivitet och smärta hos personer med cervikal dystoni. Metod: Detta var en icke experimentell tvärsnittstudie med 273 medlemmar i Svensk dystoniförening som deltagare. Insamling av data skedde via en enkät.  Den fysiska aktivitetsnivån mättes med IPAQ-sf och smärta med NRS. Resultat: Gruppen placerades i kategori två enligt International Physical Activity Questionnaire´s (IPAQ) riktlinjer med ett medianvärde på 925,5 MET-minuter vilket innebär måttligt aktiva. I gruppen uppnådde 34,05% de allmänna rekommendationerna för fysisk aktivitet uppsatta av WHO. Det förelåg ingen skillnad mellan män och kvinnor vad gäller fysisk aktivitetsnivå och en låg icke signifikant korrelation mellan smärta och fysisk aktivitetsnivå. Konklusion: För fysioterapeuter är det bra att ha i beaktning att personer med cervikal dystoni är mindre fysisk aktiva och behandlingen bör utformas efter individen för bästa möjliga behandling. Liknande studier med andra datainsamlingsmetoder behövs för att säkerställa resultatet. / Background: Cervical dystonia is a neurological disease which effects the muscles of the neck with muscle contractions that could lead to malalignments, pain and tremor. Todays treatment consists of injections with botulinum toxin and physical therapy. Aim: The purpose of this study was to examine the self-reported level of physical activity and the correlation between physical activity and pain among people with cervical dystonia. Method: This was a nonexperimental cross-sectional study with 273 members of Svensk dystoniförening as participants. Collection of data was gathered thru a questionnaire. The level of physical activity was measured with IPAQ-sf and level of pain with NRS. Results: The result showed that the group was placed in category two according to the International Physical Activity Questionnaire´s (IPAQ) guidelines with a median of 925,5 MET-minutes which means moderately active. Within the group 34,05% reached the current recommendations for physical activity stated by WHO. There was no difference between men and women as to level of physical activity (p=0,39, p=0,36), and a low insignificant correlation between pain and level of physical activity (r=-0,15). Conclusion: Similar studies with other data collection methods is needed to ensure a possible result. For physiotherapists, it is good to keep in mind that people with cervical dystonia are less physical active and that the treatment should be designed for the individual for the best possible result.

Syftet med denna studie varatt jämföraom manliga och kvinnliga studenters humorstilar skiljer sig åt efter livstillfredsställelsen kontrollerats för. Humorstilarna som jämfördes kommer från mätinstrumentet HSQ och är uppdelade i två positiva humorstilar som anses gynnsamma för välmåendet och två negativa humorstilar som anses skadliga för det. De positiva humorstilarna är ”Relationsförstärkande” och ”Självförstärkande” medan de negativa är ”Aggressiv” och ”Självdestruktiv”. För att undersöka detta användes ANCOVA som analysmetod, den relationsförstärkande humorstilen uppfyllde inte kraven och analyserades med hjälp av en ANOVA-analys. ANCOVA-analyserutfördes påhumorstilarna ”Aggressiv”, ”Självdestruktiv” och ”Självförstärkande”. Resultatet visade att männen använder sigsignifikantmer av den aggressiva humorstilen än kvinnor. Det fanns ingen skillnad mellan män och kvinnor gällandeanvändandet av självdestruktiv eller självförstärkande humorstil. ANOVA-analysenav den relationsförstärkande humorstilen visade inte på någon signifikant skillnad mellan könen. / The aim of this study was to compare if male and female students humor styles differ after controlling for life satisfaction. The humor styles that were compared comes from the Humor Styles Questionnaire and is split into two positive humor styles which are regarded as conducive to well-being and two negative humor styles that are considerate as deleterious to well-being. The two positive humor styles are ”Affiliative” and ”Self-enhancing” and the negative are ”Aggressive” and ”Self-defeating”. In order to analyse this an ANCOVA was used as statistical method, after the assumptions were tested the ”Affiliative” humor style didn’t meet the assumptions. Three ANCOVAs were done on the humor styles”Aggressive”, ”Self-defeating” and ”Self-enhancing. Main findings include more frequent use of aggressive humor style in men compared to women. But no significant difference between the genders regarding self-defeating or self-destructive humor style.The ANOVA analysis of the ”Affiliative” humor style showed no significant difference between the genders.