Thesis (MA)--Stellenbosch University, 2002. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: An apology in Tshivenda is offered when an individual has violated a social norm or want to restore any form of a complainable. When it is given, it serves as a remedial work, designed to smooth over any social disruption that was caused. Sometimes a person who is suppose to apologize may find reasons to minimize the degree of the offence. If the offence in question is big, a verbal apology may be insufficient to restore the damaged relationship. Male and female learners commit a lot of offences towards each other at school and they are obliged to apologize for such offences. In the process of apologizing, they are faced with a wide choice of strategies to choose from. In most cases, male learners have a tendency of giving an explanation to their offences. They do not always seek for a direct apology. Inthe acceptance of their offences, they opt for longer strategies to apologize. Males seem to be either proud or shy to ask for an apology from females. Female learners on the other hand, do not want to use longer strategies to apologize, but they ask for forgiveness immediately. It is not all the males who do not want to apologize directly to females, but there are others who apologize directly. They are the ones who take females as their equals and they also want to maintain a good relationship with them. The same applies with females, a minimal number of them use longer strategies to apologize. They do not use direct strategies. There are other strategies also useful in Tshivenda male and female learners, but their use is not so popular. Strategies like explicit acceptance of the blame and expression of self-deficiency are considered the least of other ones. An apology is usually influenced by the way the complainant shows his or her dissatisfaction. Male and female learners also differ with the way they complain. They use complaint strategies differently. Both male and female learners use direct accusation and indirect accusation extensively. But the difference comes by the fact that females are longer with their complaints than males. Females show their annoyance by involving more complaint strategies. Males do not take long to complain, they involve only a few strategies. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: 'n Verskoning in Tshivenda word aangebied in geval waar 'n individu 'n sosiale reeloortree het. Wanneer dit aangebied word, dien dit as 'n remedie ontwerp om die sosiale onderbreking wat ontstaan het reg te siel. Soms sal die persoon wat veronderstel is om 'n verskoning aan te bied redes vind om die graad van die sosiale oortreding te probeer verminder. ln geval waar die oortreding as baie groot beskou word waar' n mondelingse verskoning nie genoegsaam wees om die verhouding weer te herstel nie. Manne en vrou skoliere behaan heelwat sosiale oortreding teenoor mekaar by die skool en is oorplig om verskoning aan te bied vir sulke oortredings. Tydens die proses van verskoning aanbied word die skoliere gekonfronteer met verskeie opsies om van te kies. Manlike skoliere het die manier om verkonings en verduidelikings te gee vir hulle oortredings. Hulle sal nie 'n direkte apologie aanbied nie. lndien hulle aanvaar dat hulle verkeerd was, sal hul die opsie om hulle verduidelikings te gee as strategie gebruik. Manspersone bly te trots en skaam te wees om 'n apologie te vra van dames. Dames weer vra makliker en direk om verskoning. Hierdie beginstel van om verskoning vra geld nie ten opsigte van alle skoliere nie. Sommiges sal direk apologie aanbied. Ander aanvaar vroulike skoliere as hul gelykes en probeer om 'n gesonde verhouding te handhaf Dieselfde beginsel geld tot vroulike skoliere van hulle sal lang verduidelikings aanbied as 'n strategie deur om verskoning te vra: Hulle vra nie direk om verskoning nie. Daar is ook ander strategiee in gebruiklike in Tshivenda deur manlik sowel as vroulike skoliere, maar is nie populer in gebruik nie. Strategiee soos die duidelike aanvaarding van skuld en die uitdrukking van selfbeskulding word beskou as die minste gebruiklike opsie. 'n Verskoning word beinvloed deur die manier waarop die klaer sy ofhaar misnoe wys of uitspreek. Manlike sowel as vroulike leerders versoek ook in metodiek hoe hulle kla. Hulle maak gebruik van 'n kla strategie wat verskillend is van mekaar. Beide geslagte maak gebruik van direk sowel as indirek beskuldigings. Die verskil egter is by vroulik klaers aangesien hul klagte langer duur as hul manlike ewe nie. Vroulike klaers wys hul woede of ongelukkigheid deur meer klagte strategie te betree. Mans daarom teen neem nie lang om te kla nie en behels net a paar strategiee.

Thesis (MA)--Stellenbosch University, 2003. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The aim of the study is to examine the phenomenon of politeness in isiXhosa discourse within the speech acts of apology and complaint. Politeness is evidenced where nonverbal and verbal actions work together for the purpose of achieving smooth communication among speakers. The actions that occur through discourse are called speech acts. The most important aim of the speech act of apology is to maintain a good relationship among speakers. This study focusses specifically on the speech act of apology and the manner in which Xhosa speakers forward apologies and complaints among themsleves. Politeness theory will be used as a basis of this study. In this study, the main focuss is on how the male and female students forward complaints and apologies. It is discovered that, there are different ways of expressing apologies and complaints in isiXhosa in different situations, and the different ways in which males and females students forward apologies among themselves. For instance, in space situation, males forwarded more apologies as they occupied more space than females. In time situation, females forward more apologies as they were lacking more in time management than males do. According to Trosborg (1995) there are several ways or strategies of apology, which are as follows: The opting out-catergory; minimizing the degree of offence; indirect apologies; explanation or account; promise of forbearance and the offer of repair. It has been discovered firstly in this study, that females used more apology strategies than males. Secondly, four main apology strategies: request for forgiveness; explicit explanation; offer of apology and the expression of lack of intent have been extensively used by both males and females in the empirical data examined. Trosborg (1995) mentions eight complaints strategies, namely: hints; annoyance; ill consequences; direct complaints; indirect complaints; modified blame (behavior) and an explicit blame (person). Females used more complaint strategies than males. Five complaint strategies: direct complaint; annoyance; ill consequences; indirect complaint and the modified blame have been extensively used by both males and females. This study helps us to understand the different ways of expressing apologies and complaints in different situations in isiXhosa. The more appropriate apology and complaint is used, the better the communication. This becomes evident in the manner in which males and females forwarded apology and complaint strategies in the discourse analysed in this study. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die doel van hierdie studie is om die verskynsel van beleefdheid in isiXhosa te ondersoek binne die uitvoering van die spraakhandelinge van verskoning en klagte. Beleefdheid word aangedui wanneer nie-verbale en verbale aksies saam van belang is vir die bereiking van doeltreffende kommunikasie tussen sprekers. Die handelinge wat plaasvind deur diskoers word spraakhandelinge genoem. Die belangrikste oogmerk van die spraakhandeling van verskoning is om goeie verhoudinge tussen sprekers te handhaaf. Hierdie studie fokus spesifiek op die spraakhandeling van verskoning en die wyse waarop Xhosasprekers verskonings en klagtes tussen mekaar uitruil. Beleefdheidsteorie sal as raamwerk gebruik word vir hierdie studie. Die studie gee ook aandag aan hoe vroulie en manlike studente verskonings uitruil. Dit word bevind dat daar verskillende wyses is waarop verskonings en klagtes in Xhosa uitgedruk word in verskillende situasies, en dat daar verskillende wyses is waarop manlike en vroulike studente verskonings uitruil. Byvoorbeeld, in 'n ruimte situasie gee manlike persone meer verskonings as vroulike persone, aangesien hulle meer ruimte in beslag neem. In 'n tyd situasie, gee vroulike persone meer verskonings as manlike persone aangesien dit voorkom of hulle minder besorg is oor tydsbestuur. Volgens Trosborg (1995), is daar verskeie wyses of strategieë van verskoning, insluitende die volgende: die uitwegkategorie, minimalisering van oortreding, indirekte verskonings, verduideliking, belofte van geduld, en aanbod vir herstel. Daar is bevind in die studie dat vroulike persone meer verskoning strategieë gebruik as manlike persone. Tweedens, vier hoof verskoning strategieë, nl. versoek vir vergiffenis, eksplisiete verduideliking, aanbod van 'n verskoning en die uitdrukking van 'n tekort aan bedoeling, is uitgebreid gebruik deur sowel manlike as vroulike persone. Trosborg (1995) noem agt klagte strategieë, naamlik skimpe, irritasie, sleg gevolge, direkte klagtes, indirekte klagtes, gewysigde blaam (t.o.v. gedrag), en eksplisiete blaam (t.o.v. 'n persoon). Die vroulike persone het meer klagte strategieë as manlike persone. Vyf klagtestrategieë, naamlik direkte klagte, irritasie, sleg gevolge, indirekte klagte, en die gewysigde blaam is uitgebreid gebruik deur sowel vroulike as manlike persone. Hierdie studie werp lig op die verskillende wyses van hoe verskonings in Xhosa uitgedruk word en klagtes in verskillende situasies. Hoe meer gepas 'n klagte of verskoning is, hoe meer doeltreffend vind die kommunikasie plaas. Hierdie feit word geïllustreer deur die wyses waarop manlike en vroulike persone verskonings maak, soos aangetoon in die studie.

Thesis (MA)--Stellenbosch University, 2003. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The classificatory system for features of humans in Sesotho has been investigated to show the unique nature of such human features. There are various models to handle the lexicon of a language and one of these models has been applied to Sesotho, i.e. the theory of the Generative lexicon. In chapter one attention has been given to the purpose of the study as well as various problems within lexical semantics such as lexical ambiguity. Chapter two is concerned with the theory of lexical semantics in which attention has been given to the various levels of representation of a noun in the lexicon. A representation has been given of the semantic entry of a noun in the Sesotho lexicon. Chapter three has the core of the study which investigates the semantic features of human nouns in Sesotho. Various semantic categories have been found within which such human nouns may be classified. The major categories contain nouns of humans with various physical and psychological features as well as nouns with features of various types of behaviour and features of wealth vs. poverty. Chapter four contains the conclusions of the study. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die klassifikasie sisteem vir kenmerke van mense in Sesotho is ondersoek met die oog op die unieke aard van sulke menslike kenmerke. Daar is verskillende modelle om die leksikon van 'n taal te hanteer en een van hierdie modelle is toegepas op Sesotho, d.i. die teorie van die Generatiewe leksikon. In hoofstuk een is aandag gegee aan die doel van die studie asook verskeie probleme binne die leksikale semantiek waaronder leksikale dubbelsinnigheid. Hoofstuk twee handeloor die teorie van leksikale semantiek waarin aandag gegee is aan die verskillende vlakke van representasie van 'n naamwoord in die leksikon. 'n Voorstelling is gegee van die semantiese representasie van 'n naamwoord in die Sesotho leksikon. Hoofstuk drie bevat die kern van die studie wat handeloor semantiese kenmerke VIr naamwoorde wat mense aandui. Verskeie kategorieë is gevind waarin sulke naamwoorde tereg kom. Die belangrikste kategorieë bevat naamwoorde van mense met verskillende fisiese en psigologiese kenmerke asook naamwoorde wat dui op gedragspatrone en rykdom teenoor armoede. Hoofstuk 4 bevat die konklusies van die studie.

Thesis (MA)--Stellenbosch University, 2003. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The subject of this study is the polysemy of the motion verbs in Sesotho. Motion verbs can be classified as verbs of process or transition. This study examines the semantic and the syntactic properties of motion verbs in Sesotho. These motion verbs include verbs denoting process e.g. -ya, -tla, -tsamaya, -baleha, -nyoloha and -theoha as shown in the sentences below: a. Monna 0 ya toropong. 'The man goes to town' b. Bashanyana ba tsamaya thoteng. 'The boys walk in the veld' c. Bana ba tla hae. 'The children come home' d. Bashemane ba balehile mophatong. 'The initiates run away from the initiation school' e. Tshwene e theoha sefateng. 'The baboon descends from the tree' f. Banna ba nyoloha thaba. 'Men ascend the mountain' The study demonstrates that motion verbs in Sesotho are semantically divided into verbs denoting 'to go' e.g. -ya, verbs denoting 'to walk', e.g. -tsamaya, verbs denoting 'to run away', e.g. -baleha, verbs denoting to ascend, e.g. -nyoloha, verbs denoting to descend, e.g. -theoha. The study further demonstrates that these verbs are canonically intransitive. The study provides evidence that motion verbs are characterized by specific selection restrictions and event structures. The study further demonstrates that motion verbs are used with different subjects denoting (groups of) people, animals, abstract nouns, mass nouns, nouns denoting food, intoxicating and nonintoxicating liquids, natural phenomena, artifacts, natural object, possession/property, humans and animals. Lastly the lexical conceptual paradigm, providing the different word senses of each verb, is examined. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die onderwerp van hierdie studie is die polisemie van bewegingswerkwoorde m Sesotho. Bewegingswerkwoorde kan gekarakteriseer word as werkwoorde van proses (aktiwiteit) of transisie. Hierdie studie ondersoek die semantiese en sintaktiese eienskappe van bewegingswerkwoorde in Sesotho. Hierdie werkwoorde sluit in werkwoorde wat 'n proses (aktiwiteit) aandui, byvoorbeeld -~, -tla, -tsamaya, -baleha, -nyoloha en -theoha, soos geïllustreer in die volgende sinne: a. Monna 0 ya toropong. 'Die man gaan dorp toe' b. Bashanyana ba tsamaya thoteng. 'Die seuns loop in die veld' c. Bana ba tla hae. 'Die kinders gaan huis toe' d. Bashemane ba balehile mophatong. 'Die inisiante hardloop weg van die inisiasieskool' e. Tshwene e theoha sefateng. 'Die bobbejaan daal afuit die boom' f. Banna ba nyoloha thaba. 'Die mans bestyg die berg' Die studie demonstreer dat bewegingswerkwoorde in Sesotho semanties geklassifiseer kan word in werkwoorde wat beteken 'om te gaan', bv. -~, werkwoorde wat beteken 'om te loop', bv. -tsamaya, werkwoorde wat beteken 'om (weg) te hardloop', bv. -baleha, werkwoorde wat beteken 'om te bestyg', bv. -nyoloha, en werkwoorde wat beteken 'om afte daal', bv. -theoha. Die studie demonstreer verder dat bewegingswerkwoorde in Sesotho tiperend onoorganklik is. Daar word aangetoon dat hierdie werkwoorde gekenmerk word deur spesifieke seleksiebeperkings en gebeure-strukture ('event structures'). Die studie toon op uitgebreide wyse aan dat bewegingswerkwoorde in Sesotho met onderwerpe gebruik kan word wat verskillende semantiese tipes verteenwoordig, en wat verskillende kenmerke het, insluitende onderwerpe wat menslike individue, groepe mense of diere aandui, abstrakte naamwoorde, massanaamwoorde, voedsel, vloeistowwe, natuurlike verskynsels, artifakte, natuurlike voorwerpe, of be sittings.

Thesis (MA)--University of Stellenbosch, 2003. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This study explores the lexical semantic analysis of motion verb - phuma in Xhosa. In Chapter 1 the aim of the study is stated. Properties about the lexical semantic analysis of the verb -phuma as well as the generative lexicon theory by Pustejovsky (1996) are discussed. The theoretical framework and the organisation of study are also discussed in this chapter. Chapter 2 addresses in more detail the type system for semantics. A generative theory of the lexicon includes multiple levels of representation for different types of lexical information needed. Among such levels are Argument Structure, Event Structure, Qualia Structure and Inheritance Structure. Chapter 2 also represent in more detail the structure of qualia and the role they play in distributing the functional behaviour of words and phrases in composition. Chapter 3 examines the lexical semantic analysis of the verb -phuma to account for the range of selectional properties of the NP subject argument of the verb -phuma and the various interpretations that arise in terms of composition with its complement arguments. The polysemous behaviour of the verb -phuma is examined in sentence alternation constructions with respect to event structure properties. The lexical representation in terms of argument structure and the event structure of the verb -phuma in different sentences is also investigated. Chapter 4 is the conclusion, summarising the findings of all the previous chapters in this study on lexical semantic analysis of the motion verb -phuma in Xhosa. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie studie ondersoek die leksikaal-semantiese analise van die bewegingswerkwoord -phuma in Xhosa. In hoofstuk 1 word die doelstellings van die studie uiteengesit. Die teorie van Generatiewe Leksikon van Pustejovsky word ook kortliks bespreek, wat die teoretiese raamwerk is van die studie. Laastens word die organisasie van die studie bespreek. Hoofstuk 2 bespreek in groter besonderhede die model van Generatiewe Leksikon teorie. 'n Generatiewe teorie van die leksikon sluit in veelvuldige vlakke van representasie vir die verskillende tipes leksikale inligting wat benodig word. Hierdie vlakke van representasie sluit in die Argument struktuur, Gebeure ('Event') struktuur, Qualia struktuur en Leksikale Erf (Inheritance) struktuur. Hoofstuk 2 bied ook in meer detail die struktuur van qualia en die rol wat dit speel in die verspreiding van die funksionele gedrag van woorde en frases in kombinasie. Hoofstuk 3 ondersoek die leksikaal-semantiese analise van die werkwoord -phuma en die verskeidenheid interpretasies wat beskikbaar is vir -phuma in kombinasie met die komplement argumente daarvan. Die polisemiese gedrag van die werkwoord -phuma word ondersoek in sinsalternasiekonstruksies ten opsigte van die gebeure ('event') struktuur. Die leksikale representasie in terme van argument struktuur en die gebeurestruktuur van die werkwoord -phuma ill verskillende sinne met verskillende seleksiekenmerke van die subjek, word ook ondersoek. Hoofstuk 4 is die Samevatting van die studie, wat 'n opsomming bied van die vernaamste bevindings van al die vorige hoofstukke van hierdie studie oor die leksikaal-semantiese analise van die werkwoord -phuma in Xhosa. / ISISHW ANKA THELO: Esi sifundo siphonononga uhlalutyo lwesemantiki yelekhisikoni yesenzi sentshukumo u-phuma. ISahluko 1 umongo wesifundo uxeliwe kwisahluko 1. Iziphumo zohlalutyo lwesemantiki yelekhisikoni yesenzi u-phuma ngokukaPustejovsky (1996) ZIXOXlwe. zikwaxoxiwe kwesi sahluko. ngokunjalo nengcmgane yelekhisikoni evelisayo Ubume bengcingane kunye nolungiselelo lwesifundo ISahluko 2 siyila indlela ermsrweyo yohlobo lwesemantiki yethu. Ingcingane evelisayo yelekhisikoni iquka imigangatho imininzi yenkcazelo ngokwentlobo ezahlukeneyo ezifuna ulwazi lwesemantiki. Eminye yale migangatho lulwakhiwo lwe-Adyumenti, uLwakhiwo IweSiganeko, uLwakhiwo IweKhwaliya kunye noLwakhiwo Lobalo. ISahluko 2 sikwabonisa ngokucace kakhulu ngolwakhiwo lwekhwaliya ngendima edlaliweyo ekusasazeni impatho yomsebenzi wamagama kunye namabinzana kwindibaniso. ISahluko 3 sivavanya ngohlalutyo lwesemantiki yelekhisikoni yesenzi u-phuma ngokwengcaciso yodweliso lweempawu ezikhethiweyo ze-adyumenti yebinzana lesibizo esiyintloko sesenzi uphuma kunye notoliko olwahlukeneyo oluvela ngokwamagama endibaniso ngokwe-adyumenti yemfezekiso. Impatho yentsingiselo ezininzi yesenzi u-phuma ivavanyiwe kulwakhiwo lotshintshwano lwezivakalisi ngokuhlonela iimpawu zolwakhiwo lwesiganeko. Inkcazelo yelekhisikoni ngokwamagama olwakhiwo lwe-adyumenti kunye nolwakhiwo lwesiganeko sesenzi u-phuma kwizivakalisi ezahlukeneyo zikwaphengululiwe. ISahluko 4 sisiqukumbelo, esishwankathela iziphumo zezahluko ezingaphambili kwesi sifundo kuhlalutyo lwesemantiki yelekhisikoni yesenzi sentshukumo -uphuma kwisiXhosa.

Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2013. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This study focuses on the phenomenon of obligatory reflexivity in Afrikaans. Despite a considerable literature on this phenomenon as it is reflected in other languages, the Afrikaans data have not received any systematic attention. Hence, a first major aim is to address this empirical gap. Secondly, informed by the Afrikaans data, the study aims to develop an analysis that can provide a conceptually adequate account for the facts, and that is amenable to extension beyond Afrikaans. The proposed nominal shell analysis (of obligatory reflexivity) (NSA) is developed within, on the one hand, the general framework of Minimalist Syntax and, on the other hand, the specific framework of proposals about word order and linearisation phenomena in Germanic languages worked out in, amongst others, Holmberg (2000), Biberauer (2003), Biberauer & Richards (2006), Biberauer & Roberts (2006), and Biberauer et al. (2009, 2011). The basic idea underlying the NSA is that two expressions which enter into an obligatory coreferential relationship are initially merged into a nominal shell structure headed by an identity focus light noun n. It is argued that the identity focus n belongs to a natural class of identificational elements which also includes a contrastive focus n, a presentational focus n, a possessor focus n, and a quantity focus n. In terms of the NSA, the identity focus n takes a reflexive pronoun as its complement, with such a pronoun being analysed as a syntactic compound that is derived by merging a category-neutral lexical root √PRON with a D constituent containing unvalued φ-features. This means, then, that a reflexive pronoun is defined in syntactic terms and not in terms of special lexical features. The reflexive is subsequently raised to the identity focus n – which forms the locus of the suffix -self associated with morphologically complex reflexive pronouns – where it is spelled out as part of the compound n that is derived in this manner. The antecedent expression is next merged as the specifier of the compound light noun, resulting in a configuration where the antecedent can value the φ-features of the reflexive, with the n serving as mediator. In this configuration, the φ-valued pronoun is semantically interpreted as an anaphor and the nominal expression in the specifier position of the nP as its antecedent; that is, the pronoun is interpreted as obligatorily coreferential with this nominal expression. The details of the NSA and its empirical and conceptual consequences are worked out with reference to six constructions in which reflexive pronouns can occur: verbal object constructions, prepositional object constructions, double object constructions, infinitival constructions, small clause constructions, and possessive constructions. Brief attention is also given to the possibility of extending the ideas underlying the NSA to (i) languages of the Southern Bantu family, where the reflexive element surfaces as a verbal affix, and (ii) two further types of construction in Afrikaans which seem amenable to such a nominal shell approach, namely floating quantifier constructions and expletive daar (“there”) constructions. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie studie fokus op die verskynsel van verpligte refleksiwiteit in Afrikaans. Ten spyte van ’n aansienlike literatuur oor die realisering van hierdie verskynsel in ander tale, is daar nog geen sistematiese aandag gegee aan die Afrikaanse data nie. ’n Eerste hoofoogmerk van die studie is derhalwe om hierdie empiriese leemte te vul. ’n Tweede hoofoogmerk is om, in die lig van die Afrikaanse data, ’n analise te ontwikkel wat ’n konseptueel toereikende beskrywing en verklaring van die feite kan gee, en wat hopelik na ander tale uitgebrei kan word. Die voorgestelde nominale skulp-analise (van verpligte refleksiwiteit) (NSA) word ontwikkel binne, enersyds, die algemene raamwerk van Minimalistiese Sintaksis en, andersyds, die spesifieke raamwerk van voorstelle oor woordvolgorde en lineariseringsverskynsels in Germaanse tale soos uiteengesit in, onder meer, Holmberg (2000), Biberauer (2003), Biberauer & Richards (2006), Biberauer & Roberts (2006), and Biberauer et al. (2009, 2011). Die basiese idee onderliggend aan die NSA is dat twee uitdrukkings wat in ’n verhouding van verpligte koreferensie staan, inisieel saamgevoeg word in ’n nominale skulpstruktuur met ’n identiteitsfokus-ligte naamwoord n as hoof. Daar word geargumenteer dat hierdie n tot ’n natuurlike klas van identifikatoriese elemente behoort, waaronder ook ’n kontrasfokus-n, ’n presentasiefokus-n, ’n besittersfokus-n, en ’n kwantiteitsfokus-n. Volgens die NSA neem die identiteitsfokus-n ’n refleksiewe voornaam-woord as komplement, waar so ’n voornaamwoord ontleed word as ’n sintaktiese samestelling wat afgelei word deur die samevoeging van ’n kategorie-neutrale leksikale wortel √PRON met ’n D wat beskik oor ongewaardeerde φ-kenmerke. ’n Refleksiewe voornaamwoord word dus in sintaktiese terme gedefinieer en nie in terme van spesiale leksikale kenmerke nie. Die refleksief word vervolgens gehys na die identiteitsfokus-n – die lokus van die suffiks -self wat geassosieer word met morfologies komplekse relatiewe voornaamwoorde – waar dit uitgespel word as deel van die n-samestelling wat op dié manier afgelei word. Die uitdrukking wat as antesedent dien, word op sy beurt saamgevoeg as die spesifiseerder van die n-samestelling. Dit lei tot ’n konfigurasie waarin die antesedent waardes aan die φ-kenmerke van die refleksief kan toeken – via die n, wat dus as ’n tussenganger optree. In hierdie konfigurasie word die φ-gewaardeerde voornaamwoord semanties geïnterpreteer as ’n anafoor en die nominale uitdrukking in die spesifiseerderposisie van die nP as sy antesedent; met ander woorde, die voornaamwoord word geïnterpreteer as verplig koreferensieel met dié nominale uitdrukking. Die besonderhede van die NSA en die empiriese en konseptuele konsekwensies daarvan word uitgewerk aan die hand van ses konstruksies waarin refleksiewe voornaamwoorde kan voorkom: verbale-objekkonstruksies, preposisionele-objekkonstruksies, dubbelobjekkonstruksies, infinitiefkonstruksies, beknopte-sinkonstruksies, en besitskonstruksies. Daar word ook kortliks aandag gegee aan die moontlikheid om die idees onderliggend aan die NSA uit te brei na (i) tale van die Suidelike Bantoe-familie, waar die refleksiewe element voorkom as ’n verbale affiks, en (ii) twee verdere konstruksies in Afrikaans wat moontlik aan die hand van so ’n nominale skulp-benadering ontleed kan word, nl. swewende-kwantifiseerderkonstruksies en ekspletiewe-daar-konstruksies. / National Research Foundation (NRF)

Thesis (DPhil)--University of Stellenbosch, 2009. / This study about formality in business texts is situated within the field of document design. For this reason, the definition of formality and the operasionalisation thereof in business texts are approached from a functional framework, which can lead to the realisation of useful guidelines to text producers based on the conclusions drawn from the research. With these guidelines, informed decisions can be made about formality in texts. In this study formality is defined and operasionalised in terms of the two notions context (in)dependency and deixis. Formality and deixis both involve distance. Greater distance between die text/writer and the reader or interlocutors mutually is associated with a higher degree of formality. On the other hand, a higher frequency deictic referential words such as personal pronouns (you, he, we, they), adverbs of place (here, there), direction (forwards, outside) and time (just now, only just, at present) implies a shorter social and spatio-temporal distance, and therefore a higher degree of informality. The reason for this is that deictic referential words (you, here, outside, now) and the reference to which such words refer should be deduced from the context immediately in order for the message to be understood unambiguously. For this reason, deictic referential words are context dependent in this study and because the context is immediately available and the distance thus shorter, these words are markers of informality. On the other hand, nondeictic referential words imply a greater distance and therefore a higher degree of formality. Grammatical variables that possibly have an effect on the degree of formality in annual reports and brochures, such as nouns, objective and subjective adjectives, verbs and pronouns, are divided in terms of their context dependence or context independence into one of two categories, namely a nondeictic category that is associated with context independence and formality, or a deictic category that is associated with context dependence and informality. Based on the frequencies of the various language variables in the two categories (context independent, nondeictic category and context dependent, deictic category) an empirical measure of formality is proposed with which formality (F-index) can be measured in Afrikaans business texts. Although the proposed measure should be refined, the study illustrates, among others, that the measure exhibits the capacity to point out variation based on differences in formality between the text types. The study further indicates that advice based on intuition should be regarded with caution. A survey aimed at readers showed that variables such as subject, tone, style, word choice and language usage play a greater role in the evaluation of the degree of formality of texts than grammatical variables such as the passive voice. In conclusion, the study gives clear guidelines as to how the language variables that were part of this study should be dealt with and in a sense be manipulated to ensure a suitable degree of formality of a text and thus the effective transfer of communication.

Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2012. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The study investigates the nature of Xitsonga deverbatives that are derived from three types of syntactic verbs, namely intransitive verbs, monotranstive verbs and ditransitive verbs .The aim is to determine the classes in which nominalisation occurs as well as to determine the semantic features which occur with these deverbatives in various noun classes. The three types of verbs are further distinguished into agentive verbs and non-agentive verbs. The deverbatives that are examined in this study are arranged in terms of Levin (1993)’s semantic classification of verbs. The focus of this study is on the verbs without derivational suffixes. However, few deverbatives with derived verbal forms have been included. The nominal morphology of Xitsonga is also examined in this study The study is conducted within the framework of four assumptions in morphology and lexical semantics, namely lexeme-based theory, X-bar syntax, lexical semantic properties of verb classes advanced by Levin (1993), and the Generative Lexicon theory advanced by Pustejovsky (1995), specifically the assumption about the meta-entry for a lexeme. The study illustrates that nominalisation in Xitsonga, in particular, and in African Languages in general occurs through the affixation of the class prefix and the nominal suffix onto the verb stem. The study found that the deverbal nominals occur in a similar morphological structure to that of nonderived nouns. It was also demonstrated that Xitsonga deverbatives may be classified in terms of Busa’s view of distinguishing between stage-level nominals and individual-level nominals. The study has established that nominalisation in Xitsonga is a phenomenon that occurs in classes 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 14 with both agentive and non-agentive verbs as verb stems. It however, found that the most productive classes are 1, 3,5,7,and 14. The study demonstrated that class 1 deverbatives refer strictly to humans, while deverbatives in other classes refer to various things. The data examined in this study revealed that in general, Xitsonga deverbatives exhibit the following semantic features across various noun classes: [Actor], [Experiencer], [Theme], [Patient] [Result], [Event], [Act], [State], [Artifact], [Instrument]. [Excessive act], [Excessive state], [Place], [Expert], [Excessive actor], [Excessive experiencer], [Excessive theme], and [Excessive patient]. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die studie ondersoek die aard van deverbatiewe naamwoorde in Xitsonga wat afgelei word vanaf drie soorte werkwoorde, naamlik, intransitiewe, enkel-transitiewe en dubbel-transitiewe werkwoorde. Die doelstelling van die studie is om te bepaal in watter naamwoordklasse nominalisering kan voorkom, en wat die semantiese kenmerke is van die deverbatiewe wat in die verskillende naamwoordklasse voorkom. Die drie tipes werkwoordklasse word voorts onderskei in terme van agentiewe en nieagentiewe werkwoorde. Die deverbatiewe naamwoorde wat in die studie ondersoek word, word verder onderskei volgens die klassifikasie van semantiese werkwoordklasse van Levin (1993). Die studie fokus op naamwoorde afgelei van werkwoorde sonder afleidingsagtervoegsels. Nietemin is enkele werkwoordvorme met afleidings-agtervoegsels ingesluit. Die studie ondersoek ook die naamwoordmorfologie van Xitsonga. Die studie is onderneem binne die raamwerk van vier breë weergawes van morfologie, sintaksis en leksikale semantiek, naamlik morfeem-lekseem gebaseerde teorie, X-balk sintaksis, Levin (1993) se semantiese werkwoordklas klassefikasie, en Generatiewe Leksikon Teorie van Pustejovsky (1995), in die besonder die aanname van die meta-inskrywing vir die lekseem. Die studie bevestig dat nominalisering in Xitsonga, soos in die Afrikatale in die algemeen, manifesteer deur die affiksering van 'n prefiks en 'n suffiks aan die werkwoordstam waarvandaan die naamwoord afgelei word. Die studie het bevind dat afgeleide naamwoorde in 'n soortgelyke morfologiese struktuur voorkom as nie-afgeleide naamwoorde in Xitsonga. Daar is ook bevind dat Xitsonga deverbatiewe geklassifiseer kan word in terme van Busa se onderskeid tussen fase-vlak en individuele-vlak nominate. Die studie het bevind dat nominalisering in Xitsonga voorkom in klasse 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 en 14, afgelei van sowel agentiewe as nie-agentiewe werkwoord stamme. Daar is bevind dat die mees produktiewe klasse, klas 1, 3, 5, 7 en 14 is. Die studie het voorts aangetoon dat klas 1 deverbatiewe slegs mensverwysing het, terwyl die deverbatiewe in ander klasse na 'n verskeidenheid semantiese entiteite verwys. Volgens die data wat ondersoek is, volg dit dat Xitsonga deverbatiewe in die algemeen, die volgende semantiese kenmerke vertoon oor die verskillende naamwoordklasse: [Akteur], [Ervaarder], [Tema], [Pasiënt], [Resultaat], [Gebeurtenis], [Aksie], [Toestand], [Artifak], [Instrument], [Oordrewe aksie], [Plek], [Ekspert], [Oordrewe akteur], [Oordrewe ervaarder], [Oordrewe tema] en [Oordrewe pasiënt]. / NKOMISO: Dyondzo leyi yi kambisisa xivumbeko xa mavitimpfelelo ya Xitsonga lama ya pfelelaka ya suka eka tinxaka tinharhu ta maendli ma le ka vulongoloxamarito, ku nga, maendli yo pfumala xiendliwa, maendli ya xiendliwa xin’we, na maendli ya swiendliwa swimbirhi. Xikongomelo i ku lava ku kumisisa mitlawa ya maviti leyi pfumelelaka mpfelelo wa maviti ku humelela ni ku kumisisa swihlawulekisi swa tinhlamuselo leswi kumekaka eka mavitimpfelelo eka mitlawa yo hambanahambana. Tinxaka tinharhu ta maendli ti tlhela ti hambanyisiwa ku ya hi maendli ya nghingiriko ni maendli yo pfumala nghingiriko. Mavitimpfelelo lama kambisisiwaka eka dyondzo leyi ma longoloxiwa hi ku ya hi maavelo ya maendli ya Levin (1993). Mhakankulu leyi dyondzo leyi yi langutanaka na yona yi le ka maendli mo pfumala swilandzi swa mpfelelo. Hambiswiritano, mavitimpfelelo ma nga ri mangani lama nga na swilandzi swa mpfelelo ma katsiwile eka dyondzo leyi. Mofoloji ya Xitsonga ya kambisisiwa na yona eka dyondzo leyi. Dyondzo leyi yi endliwa hi ku landza endlelo leri katsaka mavonelo ma mune eka mofoloji ni le ka semantiki, ku nga Lexeme -based theory, X – bar syntax, lexical semantics properties of verb classes leyi tumbuluxeke hi Levin (1993), na Generative Lexicon theory leyi tumbuluxeke hi Pustejovsky (1995), ku kongomisiwa ngopfu eka meta-entry ya rito.Dyondzo leyi yi kombisa leswaku mpfelelo wa maviti eka Xitsonga, hi ku kongomisa, na le ka tindzimi ta Xintima hi ku angarhela, wu va kona hikokwalaho ka ku lungeleriwa ka xirhangi xa ntlawa na xilandzi xa riendli eka nsinya wa riendli. Dyondzo leyi yi kumile leswaku mavitimpfelolo ma tirhisa xifaniso xa murhi xo fana na xa maviti mo ka ma nga ri ma mpfelelo. Ku tlhele ku kombisiwa leswaku mavitimpfelelo ya Xitsonga ma nga aviwa hi ku landza vonelo ra Busa (1996) ro hambanyisa exikarhi ka mavitipfelelo lama thyiwaka munhu hi ku landza mhaka leyi humelelaka hi nkarhi wolowo ni lama ya thyiwaka munhu hi ku ya hi mhaka leyi fambelanisiwaka na munhu wa kona, hambi a nga ri ku yi endleni hi nkarhi wolowo. Dyondzo leyi yi kumile leswaku mpfelelo wa maviti eka Xitsonga I mhaka leyi humelelaka eka mitlawa ya maviti ya 1,3,4,6,7,8,9, and 14 eka maendli ya nghingiriko ni yo pfumala nghingiriko. Hambiswiritano, ku kumekile leswaku mitlawa leyi mpfelelo wu humelelaka ngopfu eka yona I ya 1,3,5,7, and 14. Dyondzo leyi yi kombisile leswaku mavitimpfelelo ma le ka ntlawa wa 1 ma kongomisa eka vanhu, loko mavitimpfelelo ma le ka mitlawa yin’wana ma kongomisa eka swilo swo hambanahambana.Vuxokoxoko lebyi kamberiweke eka dyondzo leyi byi paluxile leswaku hi ku angarhela mavitimpfelelo ma humesa swihlawulekisi leswi landzelaka swa tinhlamuselo eka mitlawa ya maviti yo hambanahambana: [Muendli], [Mutokoti], [Nkongomelo], [Mutwisiwa ku vava], [Mbuyelo], [Xiendleko], [Nghingiriko], [Xiyimo], [Ximakiwa], [Xitirho], [Nghingiriko wo tlurisa], [Xiyimo xo tlurisa], [Ndhawu], [N’wavuswikoti], [[Muendli wo tlurisa], [Mutokoti wo tlurisa], [Nkongomelo wo tlurisa], na [Mutwisiwa ku vava wo tlurisa].

Thesis (DLitt)--Stellenbosch University, 2004. / Full text to be digitised and attached to bibliographic record. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This study examines the morpho-syntactic and semantic properties, specifically tense and aspectual properties, of deficient verbs in Xitsonga. Various properties of deficient verbs have given rise to a distinction in verbal categories. Among these a range of features are explored in the study with the aim of establishing whether they playa significant role in relevant linguistic questions: The research on the deficient verb involves questions from three theoretical areas, namely Syntax, Morphology and Semantics. Deficient verbs in Xitsonga and related African languages are generally subcategorized for a clausal complement as illustrated in the following example: [a-hi-hamba [hi-rima laha]] [We-did-usually [plough here]] In the above sentence the deficient verb is hamba and it is followed by a compulsory clause as complement. The main properties of deficient verbs explored in this study relate to the following phenomena: • The deficient verb determines the selection of the mood in Inflection of the clausal complement. • The clausal complement of a deficient verb must have compulsory agreement of its subject with the subject of the matrix clause. • The deficient verbs lack the property which is characteristic of the autonomous verbs i.e. that they may be extended by derivative affixes such as the applicative or causative. • Deficient verbs have distinctive semantic features which are related to two inflectional categories, i.e. aspect and tense. This study concludes that the deficient verbs may express several meanings, including meanings related to duration, habitual, frequentative, progressive, obligative, manner, continuative, concessive and completive. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie studie ondersoek die sintaktiese en semantiese, in die besonder die tydvorm- en aspek-eienskappe van hulpwerkwoorde in Xitsonga. 'n Verskeidenheid kenmerke van hulpwerkwoorde het daartoe aanleiding gegee dat 'n onderskeid getref word ten opsigte van werkwoordkategorieë. Hieronder word 'n verskeidenheid kenmerke ondersoek ten einde vas te stelof dit 'n beduidende rol speel in relevante linguistiese vrae. Die navorsing van hierdie studie behels vrae vanuit drie teoretiese velde, naamlik die morfologie, sintaksis, en semantiek. Hulpwerkwoorde in Xitsonga en verwante Afrikatale word gesubkategoriseer vir 'n sinskomplement, soos geïllustreer in die volgende voorbeeld: [A-hi-hamba [hi-rima laha]] [Ons het gewoonlik [ons ploeg hier]], d.i. ons het gewoonlik hier geploeg In die bogenoemde sin is hamba die hulpwerkwoord en dit word gevolg deur 'n verpligte sinskomplement. Die sentrale kenmerke van hulpwerkwoorde wat in hierdie studie ondersoek word hou verband met die volgende verskynsels: • Die hulpwerkwoord bepaal die seleksie van modus in die Infleksie van die sinskomplement. • Die sinskomplement van 'n hulpwerkwoord moet verpligte kongruensie toon van die subjek daarvan met die subjek van die matriksin. • Die hulpwerkwoord kort die eienskap wat kenmerkend is van outonome werkwoorde, naamlik, dat hulle afleidingsuffikse kan neem, soos die applikatief -el- en die kousatief -is. • Hulpwerkwoorde het onderskeidende semantiese kenmerke wat verband hou met twee infleksie kategorieë, nl. aspek en tydvorm. Die studie kon tot die gevolgtrekking dat hulpwerkwoorde 'n verskeidenheid betekennis kan uitdruk, insluitende betekenisse wat verband hou met tydsduur, habitueel, frekwentatief, progressief, verpligting, wyse, voortdurendheid, toegewing en kompletief.

Dissertation (PhD)--University of Stellenbosch, 2003. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This study deals with three interrelated types of information about sentences in Zulu, i.e. situation aspect or events, viewpoint aspect which includes i.a. the perfective and imperfective aspect and the contribution of the temporal location of a sentence focusing on the basic tenses. The semantic feature of temporal location has been integrated with the view of the two components in sentences i.e. aspectual situation type and viewpoint. Vendier's classification of aspectual classes formed a base from which the Zulu event structure has been discussed. The contribution of the two theories, i.e. the Two Component theory of Smith (1997) and the Event Structure of Pustejovsky (1995) which is situated within the Generative Lexicon theory of lexical semantics featured prominently in the analysis of events and states in Zulu. A conclusion has been reached that there are four situation types relevant to Zulu and distinguished from each other by different temporal features. These situation types feature basic-level and derived-level types (according to Smith (1997)). Three event types have been identified for Zulu, i.e. state, process and transition (according to Pustejovsky (1995)). Events are complex semantic objects resulting in an extended event structure. Event structure classification for Zulu is established with structured sub-event. These event structures are defined with respect to three different types of ordering relation between sub-event, i.e. temporally ordered subevents, simultaneous sub-event and temporal overlap. The event structure has been distinguished through event headedness which give rise to twelve possible constructions. The basic principles and the temporal structures underlying the Zulu tenses are viewed in relation to the moment of speech, time of the situation and the reference time in the structure of tenses as shown in the viewpoint of Reichenbach developed by Hornstein (1990). The role played by adverbs as modifiers of tense is highlighted. The behavior of bounded and unbounded sentences in relation to tense is mentioned. Regarding the expression of aspect in Zulu, a clear distinction has been established between perfective and imperfective in Zulu. The aspect appears as an inflectional category within syntax. These categories may have a maximal projection according to the X-bar theory. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie studie gee aandag aan drie onderling verbonde tipes inligting oor sinne in. Zulu, d.i. die situasie-aspek of die gebeure, gesigspunt-aspek wat, onder andere, die perfektiewe en imperfektiewe aspek insluit en die bydrae van die temporele lokasie van 'n sin, met die fokus op die basiese tye. Die semantiese verskynsel van temporele lokasie is geintegreer met die aanname van die twee komponente in sinne, d.i. aspektueie situasie tipe, en die gesigspunt. Vendier se klassifikasie van aspektueie klasse het die basis gevorm waarvan daan die Zulu gebeure struktuur bespreek is. Die bydrae van die twee teorië, d.i. die Twee Komponent teorie van Smith (1997) en die gebeurde struktuur van Pustejovsky (1995) wat binne die Generatiewe Leksikon teorie van leksikale semantiek geleis, is in die analise van gebeure en toestand gebruik. Daar is tot die gevolgtrekking gekom dat daar vier situasietipes relevant tot Zulu is, en daar word tussen hulle deur middel van temporele verskynsels onderskei. Hierdie situasietipes beeld die basiese-vlak en die afgeleide-vlak tipes uit (volgens Smith (1997)) Drie tipes gebeure is vir Zulu geidentifiseer, d.i. toestand, proses, en oorgang (volgens Pustejovsky (1995)). Gebeure is kompleks semantiese voorwerpe wat tot uitgebreide gebeurde struktuur lei. Die gebeurde-struktuur se klassifikasie in Zulu is met gestruktureerde sub-gebeure gevestig. Hierdie gebeure-strukture is met betrekking tot drie verskillende tipes van verhouding ordening tusen sub-gebeure omskryf, d.i. temporeel geordende sub-gebeure, gelyktydige sub-gebeure en temporele oorslag. Die gebeure-struktuur is deur kemgebeure onderskei, wat aanleiding tot twaalf moontlike konstruksies gee. Die basiese beginsels en die temporele strukture onderliggend aan die Zulu tye word met betrekking tot die spraakmoment, tyd van die situasie, en die verwysingstyd in die struktuur van tye soos in Reichenbach se gesigspunt wat deur Hornstein (1990) ontwikkel, is, beskou. Die rol wat bywoorde as modifiseerders van tye speel, word na vore gebring. Die gedrag van gebonde en ongebonde sinne in verband met tyd word genoem. Betreffende die uitdrukking van aspek in Zulu is 'n besondere onderskeiding tussen die perfektief en imperfektief in Zulu gevestig. Die aspek kom as 'n infleksionêre kategorie binne sintaksis voor. Hierdie kategorie mag 'n maksimale projeksie volgens die x-bar teorie hê.