This thesis investigates predictions of an exemplar account of syntax, by testing whether manipulating socially salient phonetic detail can alter the grammaticality judgements given to morpho-syntactic constructions in New Zealand English (NZE). Three experiments are were conducted as part of this thesis. The first tested the social saliency of different phonetic variables in NZE, and found phrase final /t/, which can be realised with or without a release, to be strongest. In the second experiment, phrase final /t/ was tested further, and manipulating the release significantly altered both the age and class ratings given to speakers. The way in which it did this reflected the patterns documented in production. In the third experiment, participants were asked to rate the grammaticality of the same sentences. When the results of the previous experiment were included in the statistical model, an effect of the variant came out as significant. The more participants had rated a speaker as older with the released variant in the previous experiment, the less they rated the sentence as grammatical with the released variant. That is, only the most socially salient realisations were able to alter perceived grammaticality. Overall, the results of this thesis suggest that speaker information and pho- netic detail can affect grammaticality judgements. This supports an exemplar model of syntax. Regardless of the theoretical implications of the findings however, the methodological ones are clear. If speakers and realisations of certain phonetic variables can alter grammaticality judgements, then they must be controlled for in the presentation of stimuli to participants.

In general, L2 learners have great difficulty mastering aspects of grammar in the second language. For example, Chinese-speaking ESL learners often fail to mark past tense in their speaking and writing (Aaronson & Ferres, 1987; Bayley, 1991; Bean & Gergen, 1990; Jia & Fuse, 2007; Krashen & Pon, 1975; Lardiere, 1998; Wei, 2000), and there are some suggestions in the literature that Chinese learners of English never master English tense (Lardiere, 1998). One question that arises is whether the failure to learn to use the past tense is due to a failure of competence or a failure of performance. If the former, then Chinese-speaking ESL learners should show such failures in all tasks including comprehension tasks.However, little research has investigated L2 comprehension of tense marking in reading. The studies (Gass, 2001; Guillelmon & Grosjean, 2001; Jiang, 2004, 2007) have showed that late L2 learners are not sensitive to certain types of grammatical marking. They have poor inflectional comprehension. It is possible that Chinese English-language learners are insensitive to grammatical violation involving tense during reading. This dissertation tests this idea.A group of English-proficient college students from Fu-Jen University in Taiwan was tested in a number of tasks. In paper-and-pencil tests, Chinese English-language learners showed knowledge of the past tense forms and the appropriate contexts for their usage. This suggests that past tense marking is learnable. Chinese English-language learners can acquire this knowledge. Does the relative mastery of past tense show up in comprehension in a similar L2 population? A reading comprehension test that measured reading time to sequential segments of a sentence indicated that unlike native speakers of English who were tested, Chinese English-language learners were insensitive to grammatical violation involving tense. This finding is consistent with the other studies, indicating that L2 learners are insensitive to grammatical marking during reading.Overall, it appears that high-functioning Chinese English-language learners can learn almost the proper way to use tense, but fail to do so during performance.

This thesis deals with gradience in grammar, i.e., with the fact that some linguistic structures are not fully acceptable or unacceptable, but receive gradient linguistic judgments. The importance of gradient data for linguistic theory has been recognized at least since Chomsky's Logical Structure of Linguistic Theory. However, systematic empirical studies of gradience are largely absent, and none of the major theoretical frameworks is designed to account for gradient data. The present thesis addresses both questions. In the experimental part of the thesis (Chapters 3-5), we present a set of magnitude estimation experiments investigating gradience in grammar. The experiments deal with unaccusativity/unergativity, extraction, binding, word order, and gapping. They cover all major modules of syntactic theory, and draw on data from three languages (English, German, and Greek). In the theoretical part of thesis (Chapters 6 and 7), we use these experimental results to motivate a model of gradience in grammar. This model is a variant of Optimality Theory, and explains gradience in terms of the competition of ranked, violable linguistic constraints. The experimental studies in this thesis deliver two main results. First, they demonstrate that an experimental investigation of gradient phenomena can advance linguistic theory by uncovering acceptability distinctions that have gone unnoticed in the theoretical literature. An experimental approach can also settle data disputes that result from the informal data collection techniques typically employed in theoretical linguistics, which are not well-suited to investigate the behavior of gradient linguistic data. Second, we identify a set of general properties of gradient data that seem to be valid for a wide range of syntactic phenomena and across languages. (a) Linguistic constraints are ranked, in the sense that some constraint violations lead to a greater degree of unacceptability than others. (b) Constraint violations are cumulative, i.e., the degree of unacceptability of a structure increases with the number of constraints it violates. (c) Two constraint types can be distinguished experimentally: soft constraints lead to mild unacceptability when violated, while hard constraint violations trigger serious unacceptability. (d) The hard/soft distinction can be diagnosed by testing for effects from the linguistic context; context effects only occur for soft constraints; hard constraints are immune to contextual variation. (e) The soft/hard distinction is crosslinguistically stable. In the theoretical part of the thesis, we develop a model of gradient grammaticality that borrows central concepts from Optimality Theory, a competition-based grammatical framework. We propose an extension, Linear Optimality Theory, motivated by our experimental results on constraint ranking and the cumulativity of violations. The core assumption of our model is that the relative grammaticality of a structure is determined by the weighted sum of the violations it incurs. We show that the parameters of the model (the constraint weights), can be estimated using the least square method, a standard model fitting algorithm. Furthermore, we prove that standard Optimality Theory is a special case of Linear Optimality Theory. To test the validity of Linear Optimality Theory, we use it to model data from the experimental part of the thesis, including data on extraction, gapping, and word order. For all data sets, a high model fit is obtained and it is demonstrated that the model's predictions generalize to unseen data. On a theoretical level, our modeling results show that certain properties of gradient data (the hard/soft distinction, context effects, and crosslinguistic effects) do not have to be stipulated, but follow from core assumptions of Linear Optimality Theory.

Ce travail soutient la thèse selon laquelle l'intuition entre en jeu dans l'acquisition de savoirs et, plus particulièrement, dans l'appropriation d'une langue naturelle comme le français, langue étrangère. Il traite en premier lieu de l'aspect épistémologique de l'intuition en s'attachant à montrer l'importance de cette notion dans différents domaines scientifiques tels que la psychologie, les mathématiques et la philosophie, et ce, dans le but de relever les caractéristiques intrinsèques de l'intuition – immédiateté, inexplicabilité, assurance, jugement perceptif, modèles répertoriés, etc. En second lieu, sont sollicitées les sciences du langage et, plus précisément, la linguistique et la didactique, l’objectif étant d'observer le rôle essentiel que l'intuition y joue. Les caractéristiques dégagées en première partie permettent de les confronter aux concepts linguistiques et didactiques, et d'aboutir à la conclusion que l'intuition participe à la faculté de langage et facilite l'appropriation de toute langue naturelle en se manifestant, notamment, à tous les niveaux linguistiques. Multiforme et variable en degré, elle apparaît alors comme la capacité de juger de la grammaticalité et/ou de l'acceptabilité d'un élément langagier sans recours conscient à des connaissances en langue. Ainsi, l'intuition est un mécanisme cognitif qui permet de reconnaître et de (re)construire les schèmes langagiers de façon inconsciente en s’appuyant sur l'observation et sur l'expérience, ce, afin d'enrichir un répertoire de modèles langagiers. C'est grâce à ce mécanisme qu'elle participe pleinement à l'acquisition d'un savoir et notamment à l'appropriation d'une langue naturelle. / This work claims that intuition takes part in the acquisition of knowledge and, in particular, in the appropriation of a natural language such as French as a foreign language. First, it deals with the epistemological aspect of intuition, by attempting to show the importance of this notion in various scientific fields such as psychology, mathematics and philosophy. The aim is to determine the intrinsic characteristics of intuition, such as immediacy, inexplicability, insurance, perceptual judgment, listed patterns, etc. Secondly, language sciences are holistically examined and, more specifically, linguistics and didactics, aiming to observe the essential role intuition plays within it. The distinctive features established in the first part enable to test their relevance to the linguistic and didactic concepts. This leads to the conclusion that intuition takes part in the faculty of language and facilitates the appropriation of any natural language while appearing on all linguistic levels. Being multiform and variable in scale and scope, intuition appears as the capacity to judge the grammaticality and/or the acceptability of a linguistic particle without any conscious use of language knowledge. Therefore, intuition is an unconscious cognitive mechanism that serves to recognise and to (re)build the language patterns, relying on observation and experience, in order to enrich a repertoire of language patterns. It is through this cognitive mechanism that intuition fully participates in the acquisition of knowledge, including the appropriation of a natural language.

Detta examensarbete baserar sig på fyra frågeställningar och en hypotes kring hur den deduktiva grammatikundervisningen påverkar tyskelevers interlanguage. Undersökningen försöker visa om den deduktiva metoden t.ex. gynnar en viss elevgrupp beroende på etnicitet och genus. Undersökningen består av ett Grammaticality Judgement Test och en intervjuundersökning bland elever i grundskolans senare år skolår 8 och 9 som läser tyska som språkval. De grammatiska strukturerna som undersöks har eleverna redan blivit testade på vt 2008 i samband med den ordinarie tyskundervisningen. Genom att utgå ifrån att någon form av inlärning har inträffat tillfrågas eleverna om hur denna har skett. Resultatet visar att den deduktiva grammatikundervisningen tycks gynna flickor av både svensk och utländsk bakgrund. / This degree project is based on four questions and one hypothesis about the effects of deductive grammar instruction on the interlanguage of pupils who are learning German. The study attempts to show whether the deductive method favours a certain group of pupils due to ethnicity and gender. The study consists of a Grammaticality Judgement Test and a set of interviews conducted on pupils who are learning German as their optional choice of a foreign language in the upper primary school years 8 and 9. The grammatical structures that the pupils are tested on were taught spring term 2008 in connection with the regular German language lessons. By assuming that some kind of learning has occurred, the pupils were asked to explain how it took place. The results show that the deductive grammar instruction appears to favour girls with Swedish background as well as girls with a foreign background.

L’objectif principal de ce travail est d’explorer la frontière entre les erreurs grammaticales d'une part et les erreurs textuelles d'autre part, dans les productions écrites des étudiants francophones rédigeant en anglais langue étrangère (L2) à l’université. Pour ce faire, un corpus de textes d’apprenants en anglais L2 a été recueilli et annoté par le biais de plusieurs schémas d’annotation. Le premier schéma d’annotation est issu de l’UAM CorpusTool, un logiciel qui fournit une taxonomie d’erreurs intégrée. Les premières annotations ont été croisées avec d’autres annotations issues des métafonctions sémantiques que nous avons établies, en nous appuyant sur la linguistique systémique fonctionnelle.En plus de fournir des statistiques en termes de fréquence d’occurrence des erreurs spécifiques chez les apprenants francophones, le croisement des schémas a permis d’identifier certaines valeurs proprement phraséologique, sémantique et textuelle qui semblent poser des problèmes particulièrement épineux. A ce titre, une classification de ce que nous avons appelé des erreurs d’acceptabilité textuelle a été établie, dans le but notamment d’avoir une vue globale sur les erreurs identifiables à ce niveau d’analyse. En bref, le présent travail retrace donc le cheminement de l’ensemble de notre thèse de ses débuts conceptuels jusqu’à la proposition d’un modèle explicatif permettant d’établir la description de toute occurrence erronée identifiée en langue étrangère – qu’elle soit notamment grammaticale (c’est-à-dire, imputable au système linguistique) ou textuelle(c’est-à-dire, imputable au texte). / The main objective of this study is to try and pinpoint the frontier between grammatical (or sentence-level) errors on the one hand and textual errors on the other in university student essays. Accordingly, a corpus of English L2 learner texts, written by French learners, was collected and annotated using several annotation schemes. The first annotation scheme used is based on a model from the UAM CorpusTool software package, which provided us with an integrated error taxonomy. The annotations obtained were then cross-analyzed using the semantic metafunctions identified in systemic functional linguistics.In addition to providing statistics in terms of specific error frequency, our cross analysis has identified some areas that appear to pose particularly difficult problems, i.e. phraseology, and certain semantic and textual constructions. A classification of what we have called textual acceptability errors has thus been established. In short, the thesis begins with an examination of conceptual issues and ends with the proposal for an explanatory model that can describe erroneous occurrences identified in a foreign language – whether they are grammatical (i.e., linked to the language system itself) or textual (i.e. linked to the text) in nature.

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Skrivande och skrivet språk är idag en viktig del av många människors liv, i datorns ordbehandlare, i e-postprogram och i chattkanaler på Internet. Skrivet språk har blivit mer eller mindre en förutsättning för människors dagliga kommunikation. Denna utveckling av samhället leder till ökade behov av att på olika sätt hantera text. En teknologi som har stor potential att hjälpa människor med skrivande och skrivet språk är språkteknologi. I denna avhandling ligger fokus på olika språkverktyg vars avsikt är att stödja skribenter och de som lär sig svenska bland annat genom att skriva. Ett språkverktyg som har utvecklats och utvärderats i avhandlingen är språkgranskningsverktyget Granska. I arbetet med Granska har fokus legat på utvecklingen av regelspråk, granskningsregler och generella analysregler samt utvärdering av dessa. Granska kombinerar en statistisk grundanalys av ordens ordklasser med regelbaserade metoder för sökning av grammatiska fel och frasanalys. I utvecklingen av granskningsreglerna är dragkampen mellan felaktiga utpekningar av fel, så kallade falska alarm, och uteblivna utpekningar av fel, det största enskilda problemet. Dragkampen uppstår genom att det är svårt att hitta många fel utan att också göra en del felaktiga utpekningar. Språkverktyg för skrivande kan i stort sett utvärderas på två sätt: med fokus på texten eller på den som skriver. I denna avhandling har båda typerna av utvärdering utförts med såväl modersmålskribenter som skribenter med svenska som andraspråk. I en första textbaserad utvärdering visade det sig att textgenre spelar stor roll för Granskas resultat. Ett vanligt fel i en textgenre förekommer nästan inte alls i en annan. Detta innebär att det blir mycket svårt för programmet att inte avge några falska alarm i de texter där feltypen saknas. I en andra textbaserad utvärdering jämfördes Granska och en kommersiell grammatikkontroll på texter från andraspråksskribenter. Den kommersiella grammatikkontrollen visade sig att ha bättre träffsäkerhet, men upptäckte färre fel än Granska. En första mindre användarstudie utfördes med Granska och fem erfarna skribenter. Syfte med studien var att utveckla Granska i linje med skribenters behov vid revision av text. Resultatet indikerade att användarna inte hade några problem med att välja mellan olika feldiagnoser om ett av ersättningsförslagen var korrekt. Falska alarm verkade vara av varierande svårighetsgrad: falska alarm från stavningskontrollen är mer eller mindre ofarliga, medan falska alarm från granskningen av mer komplicerade feltyper kan försvåra revisionsarbetet för användaren. Granska utvecklades från början för erfarna skribenter med svenska som modersmål, men allteftersom arbetet har fortskridit har även skribenter med svenska som andraspråk blivit en allt viktigare användargrupp. I detta arbete har diskussionen om granskningsmetod blivit mer och mer central. Även om gruppen andraspråksskribenter är mycket heterogen, så innehåller den här gruppens texter generellt sett mer fel, och i många fall fler fel i samma mening. Detta gör granskningsproblemet betydligt svårare. För det första så blir det svårare att avgöra ordens ordklass och frastillhörighet när flera fel finns i samma mening, och därmed har programmet allt mindre att hänga upp den grundläggande språkliga analysen på. För det andra är det svårare att konstruera granskningsregler för fel vars natur är svår att förutsäga på förhand. För att förbättra den grundläggande språkanalysen utvecklades programmet GTA, som gör en frasanalys och satsgränsigenkänning. GTA utvecklades ur de generella analysregler som redan fanns i Granska. GTA designades för att klara av att analysera texter som innehåller vissa avvikelser från språkets norm, t.ex. inkongruens. För att ta reda på hur väl programmet klarade av mindre avvikelser i form av stavfel utvärderades GTA och även två program för ordklassanalys på texter med olika andel stavfel. GTA bygger till mycket stor del på att identifikationen av ordklass fungerar för att fraser och satsgränser skall analyseras korrekt. Detta bekräftas också i utvärderingen, där det visade sig att GTA klarar sig bra så länge som den underliggande ordklassanalysen klarar att hantera avvikelser i texten. En viktig faktor för att klara språkliga avvikelser, i form av stavfel, är en fungerande metod för att hantera ord som är okända för programmet. Nya metoder för språkgranskning har undersökts i samarbete med andra forskare, och där har avhandlingens bidrag varit i form av transformationsregler i den statistiska språkgranskaren ProbGranska. Dessa regler visade sig vid en utvärdering avsevärt förbättra ProbGranskas säkerhet när det gällde att identifiera grammatiska problem. I utvecklingen av språkgranskaren SnålGranska har avhandlingen bidragit med idéer till dess grundläggande algoritm. Denna algoritm bygger på att träna ett maskininlärningsprogram på konstgjorda fel i avsaknad av en korpus med många uppmärkta autentiska fel. För att komma vidare med utvecklingen av språkverktyg för andraspråksskribenter genomfördes en längre fältstudie vid ett svenskt universitet. Syftet var att studera användningen av Granska i autentiska skrivuppgifter som studenterna genomförde i en avancerad kurs i svenska som främmande språk. Sexton studenter med olika språklig och kulturell bakgrund deltog i studien. En viktig del av studien utgjordes av studenternas bedömningar av Granskas alarm. Bedömningarna gjordes på en betygsskala från 1 till 5. Studenternas texter samlades också in i två versioner; en version före och en efter användningen av programmet. Denna metod gjorde det möjligt att studera i vilken grad studenterna följde Granskas råd, och huruvida dåliga eller bra råd från programmet fick höga eller låga betyg. Mest alarmerande var att dåliga råd angående ordföljd alltid fick högsta betyg. Andra ofta lämpliga råd dömdes ut för att beskrivningen av dessa feltyper, t.ex. anmärkningar om saknade tempusböjda verb och uteblivna subjekt, var svåra att förstå samt att de saknade ersättningsförslag. En viktig insikt från fältstudien var att Granska eller liknade verktyg inte är det enda verktyg som andraspråksskribenter behöver när de skriver text. Denna insikt tillsammans med andra resultat från fältstudien mynnade ut i flera designprinciper för program med fokus på andraspråksskribenter. Dessa designprinciper användes sedan i utformningen av språkmiljön Grim. Grim är en ordbehandlingsmiljö med olika interaktiva språkverktyg integrerade: Granska, GTA, den statistiska språkgranskaren ProbGranska, lexikonet Lexin med åtta olika språkpar, konkordansgränssnitt mot stora textmängder från korpusen Parole, och en ordböjningsfunktion. I Grim kan användaren arbeta med egna eller andras texter, och få återkoppling på språkets former från Granska och GTA, undersöka ords användning i autentiska texter samt få en ökad förståelse av målspråket genom integrerade tvåspråkiga lexikon. / Writing and written language play today an increasingly important part in many people’s lives. Written language has become more or less a prerequisite for daily communication. This development of society leads to increased needs for tools that can help humans in dealing with text. A technology that has a potential to aid people with writing and written language is language technology. In this thesis, the focus is on language tools based on language technology that can aid writers and learners of Swedish. A language tool that has been developed and evaluated in the thesis is the grammar checker Granska. The thesis work on Granska includes the design of its rule language, and the development of grammar checking rules for common error types in Swedish. In addition, rules for phrase analysis and clause boundary detection have been developed constituting a partial and shallow parser called GTA. Language tools for writing can mainly be evaluated in two ways: with focus on text or with focus on the writer. In this thesis, both types of evaluations have been carried out both with native writers and second language writers. The first textual evaluation of Granska showed that the genre has a strong influence on the result. In a second evaluation, Granska was compared with a commercial grammar checker on second language writers’ texts. Granska found more errors, but with a lower precision. A third evaluation focused on the general text analyzers, which Granska relies on, in this case a statistical word class analyzer and the parser GTA. These programs were evaluated on texts where spelling errors were introduced, in order to test the programs’ robustness. Results showed that as long as the word class analyzer is robust the parser GTA would also be robust. In a first formative user study with Granska and five participants, results suggested that several and competing error diagnoses and correction proposals are not a problem for the users as long as there exist at least one accurate correction proposal. Moreover, false alarms from the spelling checker seemed to pose a limited problem for the users, but false alarms on more complicated error types might disturb the revision process of the users. In order to improve the design of language tools for second language writers a field study was carried out at a Swedish university. Sixteen students with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds participated in the study. The objective was to study the use of Granska in students’ free writing. The results indicated that although most alarms from Granska are accurate, lack of feedback and misleading feedback are problems for second language writers. The results also suggested that providing the students with feedback on different aspects of their interlanguage, not only errors, and facilitating the processes of language exploration and reflection are important processes to be supported in second-language learning environments. These insights were used as design principles in the design and development of an interactive language environment called Grim. This program includes a basic word processor, in which the user can get feedback on linguistic code features from different language tools such as Granska and GTA. In addition, other tools are available for the user to explore language use in authentic texts and to achieve lexical comprehension through bilingual dictionaries. / QC 20100428

Thesis submitted for the joint institutional requirements for the double-badged degree of Doctor of Philosophy and Docteur de l'Université de Provence, Spécialité : Informatique. / Thesis (PhD)--Macquarie University, Division of Information and Communication Sciences, Department of Computing, 2008. / Includes bibliography (p. 229-240) and index. / Introduction -- Background -- A model-theoretic framework for PG -- Loose constraint-based parsing -- A computational model for gradience -- Conclusion. / The grammaticality of a sentence has conventionally been treated in a binary way: either a sentence is grammatical or not. A growing body of work, however, focuses on studying intermediate levels of acceptability, sometimes referred to as gradience. To date, the bulk of this work has concerned itself with the exploration of human assessments of syntactic gradience. This dissertation explores the possibility to build a robust computational model that accords with these human judgements. -- We suggest that the concepts of Intersective Gradience and Subsective Gradience introduced by Aarts for modelling graded judgements be extended to cover deviant language. Under such a new model, the problem then raised by gradience is to classify an utterance as a member of a specific category according to its syntactic characteristics. More specifically, we extend Intersective Gradience (IG) so that it is concerned with choosing the most suitable syntactic structure for an utterance among a set of candidates, while Subsective Gradience (SG) is extended to be concerned with calculating to what extent the chosen syntactic structure is typical from the category at stake. IG is addressed in relying on a criterion of optimality, while SG is addressed in rating an utterance according to its grammatical acceptability. As for the required syntactic characteristics, which serve as features for classifying an utterance, our investigation of different frameworks for representing the syntax of natural language shows that they can easily be represented in Model-Theoretic Syntax; we choose to use Property Grammars (PG), which offers to model the characterisation of an utterance. We present here a fully automated solution for modelling syntactic gradience, which characterises any well formed or ill formed input sentence, generates an optimal parse for it, then rates the utterance according to its grammatical acceptability. -- Through the development of such a new model of gradience, the main contribution of this work is three-fold. -- First, we specify a model-theoretic logical framework for PG, which bridges the gap observed in the existing formalisation regarding the constraint satisfaction and constraint relaxation mechanisms, and how they relate to the projection of a category during the parsing process. This new framework introduces the notion of loose satisfaction, along with a formulation in first-order logic, which enables reasoning about the characterisation of an utterance. -- Second, we present our implementation of Loose Satisfaction Chart Parsing (LSCP), a dynamic programming approach based on the above mechanisms, which is proven to always find the full parse of optimal merit. Although it shows a high theoretical worst time complexity, it performs sufficiently well with the help of heuristics to let us experiment with our model of gradience. -- And third, after postulating that human acceptability judgements can be predicted by factors derivable from LSCP, we present a numeric model for rating an utterance according to its syntactic gradience. We measure a good correlation with grammatical acceptability by human judgements. Moreover, the model turns out to outperform an existing one discussed in the literature, which was experimented with parses generated manually. / Mode of access: World Wide Web. / xxviii, 283 p. ill

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