A vitivinicultura é uma atividade extremamente importante no estado do Rio Grande do Sul, representando cerca de 50% das uvas produzidas e 90% dos vinhos em todo o país. Diferentes gêneros fúngicos são comumente encontrados infectando as bagas, os principais são Alternaria, Botrytis, Cladosporium e Aspergillus. Esta contaminação é influenciada por diferentes fatores, entre eles, características climáticas da região, variedades da uva, tipo de cultivo, entre outros. O gênero Aspergillus destaca-se dos demais, pois as espécies frequentemente encontradas nas uvas, os chamados Aspergillus seção Nigri, são potenciais produtores de Ocratoxina A, micotoxina nefrotóxica e possivelmente carcinogênica para humanos. Os objetivos deste trabalho foram a caracterização micotoxicológica de uvas das variedades Merlot e Cabernet Sauvignon, produzidas em três regiões vitivinícolas do Rio Grande do Sul, coletadas em dois estágios de maturação das bagas. As amostragens foram realizadas no inicio da mudança de cor e na colheita nas regiões da Campanha, Serra do Sudeste e Serra do Nordeste. Foram isolados oito gêneros fúngicos, com destaque para Alternaria, que foi predominante em todas as regiões, estágios de cultivo e nas duas variedades. Os Aspergillus seção Nigri foram predominantes no gênero Aspergillus, representando 88% dos isolados, que se destacaram na região da Campanha e na variedade Cabernet Sauvignon. O período da colheita demonstrou ser critico para a contaminação por Aspergillus negros na variedade Cabernet Sauvignon, enquanto na variedade Merlot, maior frequência desses fungos foi observada durante o início da mudança de cor. Uma cepa de Aspergillus japonicus foi capaz de produzir ocratoxina A na concentração de 148 ng/mL/106 conídios. Não foram encontrados níveis detectáveis de OTA nas amostras de uvas. A caracterização da contaminação fungica e por OTA em uvas cultivadas no estado é relevante para garantir a qualidade destes produtos e a segurança da população consumidora. / The viticulture is an important activity in Brazil. Rio Grande do Sul, the southern state of Brazil, responsible for almost 90% of wines production. Different fungal genera are commonly found infecting the berries, mainly Alternaria, Botrytis, Cladosporium and Aspergillus. Grape infection and fungal growth in influenced by different factors, including climatic characteristics of the region, grape varieties, crop type, among others. Among the genus Aspergillus, Aspergillus section Nigri stands out from the others, because its ability to produce ochratoxin A, mycotoxin with nephrotoxic characteristics and classified as a possible carcinogenic to humans. The aim of this study was the mycological characterization of wine grapes of Merlot and Cabernet Sauvignon varieties, cultivated at three wine producer regions of Rio Grande do Sul, collected during two stages of berries maturation. The sampling was conducted at the early ripeness and harvesting from the Campanha, Serra do Sudeste and Serra do Nordeste regions. Eight fungal genera were isolated, highlighting Alternaria, which was predominant in all regions, growing stages and varieties. Aspergillus section Nigri were prevalent in the genus Aspergillus, representing 88% of the isolates mainly at Campanha region as well as Cabernet Sauvignon veriety. The harvest period proved to be critical for contamination by Aspergillus section Nigri in C. Sauvignon variety; nevertheless, in Merlot, the greater frequency of these fungi was observed at early ripeness. One Aspergillus japonicus isolate was able to produce OTA at a concentration of 148 ng mL-1/106 conidia. No detectable levels of OTA were found in any grape samples. The characterization of fungal and OTA contamination in grapes cultivated in Rio Grande do Sul is extremely important to ensure the quality of these products and consumers safety.

A vitivinicultura é uma atividade extremamente importante no estado do Rio Grande do Sul, representando cerca de 50% das uvas produzidas e 90% dos vinhos em todo o país. Diferentes gêneros fúngicos são comumente encontrados infectando as bagas, os principais são Alternaria, Botrytis, Cladosporium e Aspergillus. Esta contaminação é influenciada por diferentes fatores, entre eles, características climáticas da região, variedades da uva, tipo de cultivo, entre outros. O gênero Aspergillus destaca-se dos demais, pois as espécies frequentemente encontradas nas uvas, os chamados Aspergillus seção Nigri, são potenciais produtores de Ocratoxina A, micotoxina nefrotóxica e possivelmente carcinogênica para humanos. Os objetivos deste trabalho foram a caracterização micotoxicológica de uvas das variedades Merlot e Cabernet Sauvignon, produzidas em três regiões vitivinícolas do Rio Grande do Sul, coletadas em dois estágios de maturação das bagas. As amostragens foram realizadas no inicio da mudança de cor e na colheita nas regiões da Campanha, Serra do Sudeste e Serra do Nordeste. Foram isolados oito gêneros fúngicos, com destaque para Alternaria, que foi predominante em todas as regiões, estágios de cultivo e nas duas variedades. Os Aspergillus seção Nigri foram predominantes no gênero Aspergillus, representando 88% dos isolados, que se destacaram na região da Campanha e na variedade Cabernet Sauvignon. O período da colheita demonstrou ser critico para a contaminação por Aspergillus negros na variedade Cabernet Sauvignon, enquanto na variedade Merlot, maior frequência desses fungos foi observada durante o início da mudança de cor. Uma cepa de Aspergillus japonicus foi capaz de produzir ocratoxina A na concentração de 148 ng/mL/106 conídios. Não foram encontrados níveis detectáveis de OTA nas amostras de uvas. A caracterização da contaminação fungica e por OTA em uvas cultivadas no estado é relevante para garantir a qualidade destes produtos e a segurança da população consumidora. / The viticulture is an important activity in Brazil. Rio Grande do Sul, the southern state of Brazil, responsible for almost 90% of wines production. Different fungal genera are commonly found infecting the berries, mainly Alternaria, Botrytis, Cladosporium and Aspergillus. Grape infection and fungal growth in influenced by different factors, including climatic characteristics of the region, grape varieties, crop type, among others. Among the genus Aspergillus, Aspergillus section Nigri stands out from the others, because its ability to produce ochratoxin A, mycotoxin with nephrotoxic characteristics and classified as a possible carcinogenic to humans. The aim of this study was the mycological characterization of wine grapes of Merlot and Cabernet Sauvignon varieties, cultivated at three wine producer regions of Rio Grande do Sul, collected during two stages of berries maturation. The sampling was conducted at the early ripeness and harvesting from the Campanha, Serra do Sudeste and Serra do Nordeste regions. Eight fungal genera were isolated, highlighting Alternaria, which was predominant in all regions, growing stages and varieties. Aspergillus section Nigri were prevalent in the genus Aspergillus, representing 88% of the isolates mainly at Campanha region as well as Cabernet Sauvignon veriety. The harvest period proved to be critical for contamination by Aspergillus section Nigri in C. Sauvignon variety; nevertheless, in Merlot, the greater frequency of these fungi was observed at early ripeness. One Aspergillus japonicus isolate was able to produce OTA at a concentration of 148 ng mL-1/106 conidia. No detectable levels of OTA were found in any grape samples. The characterization of fungal and OTA contamination in grapes cultivated in Rio Grande do Sul is extremely important to ensure the quality of these products and consumers safety.

Embora os efeitos benéficos da ingestão moderada do vinho sejam bem conhecidos, a capacidade antioxidante de sucos de uva é ainda pouco estudada. O suco de uva é um alimento composto por uma importante quantidade de polifenóis e pode ser incluído entre os alimentos com potencial antioxidante. Seu estudo é muito relevante pelo amplo consumo desta bebida e a importância econômica que apresenta em nossa região. Atualmente contamos com diferentes sucos de uva no mercado, brancos, tintos e roses, orgânicos ou convencionais. O suco de uva possui vários nutrientes e compostos bioativos com atividades antioxidante, antimutagênica, anticarcinogênica e antiaterogênica, entre outras. Os polifenóis são nutrientes de grande importância no suco de uva, visto que a presença destes pode contribuir para coloração, acidez e outras características importantes do suco. Aos polifenóis, já são atribuídas várias atividades benéficas a saúde do homem. Entretanto, pouco se sabia sobre a atividade do suco, o qual é uma substância complexa. Neste sentido, este estudo buscou avaliar: 1) atividade antioxidante e antimutagênica de diferentes sucos de uva e a influência de metais presentes nestes sucos; 2) atividade antioxidante do suco de uva rose; 3) atividade neuroprotetora e hepatoprotera do suco de uva em ratos Wistar jovens; 4) atividade antioxidante sérica do suco de uva em ratos Wistar jovens; 5) atividade neuroprotetora, hepatoprotetora, antigenotóxica em ratos Wistar envelhecidos; e 6) proteção do resveratrol e da catequina frente a diferentes agentes estressores em diferentes linhagens da levedura S. cerevisiae. Alguns metais apresentaram correlações positivas com estas atividades, como o Manganês, e negativas como, por exemplo, o Enxofre. O conteúdo de minerais variou entre sucos brancos e tintos. Entretanto, entre os mais prevalentes, está o potássio. Sendo assim, as correlações apresentadas também diferenciam entre os sucos brancos e tintos. Modelos in vivo contaram com grupos de ratos Wistar (machos) que foram tratados por gavagem duas vezes ao dia durante 30 dias, tendo no total um volume de suco de uva corresponde ao seu peso. Os ratos foram divididos em três grupos: controle (recebeu salina), suco de uva convencional e suco de uva orgânico. No 30º dia os animais recebiam uma dose equivalente ao seu peso de um agente estressor (CCl4) e após cinco horas foram sacrificados. Foi possível observar que os sucos de uva estudados possuem atividade antioxidante e antimutagênica importante no modelo da levedura S. cerevisiae. No modelo in vivo (ratos Wistar) observou-se uma ação neuroprotetora, hepatoprotetora e antioxidante sérica em ratos jovens. Nos ratos mais velhos observou-se também ação antigenotóxica importante. Nestes trabalhos, observou-se importantes correlações entre as atividades benéficas e o conteúdo polifenólico, principalmente referente ao conteúdo de resveratrol e catequina, nãoflavonóide e flavonóide, respectivamente. Observando-se que o suco de uva é uma mistura complexa, foram realizados estudos envolvendo estes polifenóis a fim de analisar a influência dos mesmos isoladamente no modelo da levedura S. cerevisiae. Foi possível observar pelos resultados que ambos os polifenóis, quando em quantidades semelhantes, são antioxidantes em potencial, sem diferença estatística. Entretanto, utilizando-se linhagens proficientes e deficientes nos sistemas de defesa antioxidante, foi possível observar que os danos causados pelos agentes estressores são revertidos por ambos polifenóis pela ação principalmente da enzima catalase. Estudos adicionais com modelos específicos para determinadas doenças ou até mesmo com humanos fazem-se necessários, entretanto pode-se concluir que o suco de uva é um alimento rico em polifenóis, vitamina C, minerais e que possui uma importante atividade antioxidante tanto in vitro como in vivo. / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior, CAPES. / Although the beneficial effects of the moderate intake of wine are well known, the antioxidant capacity of grape juices is still little reported. Grape juice is a food which has important amount of polyphenols, thus, it can be included among the foods with high antioxidant potential. Studies with grape juice are very relevant since this beverage is widely consumed and presents economical importance in our region. Nowadays there are several types of grape juices in the market; white, purple and rose, organic or conventional. Grape juice has many nutrients and bioactive compounds with antioxidant, antimutagenic, anticarcinogenic and antiteratogenic activities. Polyphenols are components which play important roles in grape juice, since their presence contributes to the coloring, acidity and other characteristics of the juice. Several beneficial activities to human health are attributed to polyphenols. However, studies related to juice beneficial activity, a complex substance, were scarce. This study aimed to assess: 1) antioxidant and antimutagenic activities of different grape juices and the metals influence in these activities; 2) antioxidant activity of rose grape juice; 3) neuroprotective and hepatoprotective activities of grape juice in young Wistar rats; 4) serum antioxidant activity of grape juice in young Wistar rats; 5) neuroprotective, hepatoprotective and antigenotoxic activities in old Wistar rats; and 6) protective activity of resveratrol and catechin against distinct stressor agents in different strains of S. cerevisiae yeast. Some metals like Manganese and Sulfur showed positive and negative correlations with these activities, respectively. Moreover, mineral content varied between white and purple juices. However, Potassium was the most prevalent mineral (in both juices). Thus, the correlations reported could also distinguish white from purple juices. Wistar rats (male) were used as in vivo models. They were treated by gavage twice a day, for 30 days, receiving in total a volume of grape juice corresponding to their weight. Rats were divided into three groups: control (saline), organic and conventional grape juice. On the 30th day, half of each group received a single dose of the stressor agent CCl4 equivalent to their weight. After six hours, the animals were sacrificed. Experiments with the moldel yeast S. cerevisiae demonstrated that the grape juices studied present important antioxidant and antimutagenic activities. The in vivo model (Wistar rats) showed neuroprotective, hepatoprotective and seric antioxidant actions of grape juices in young rats. In oldest rats, antigenotoxic activity was found. These studies demonstrated important correlations between beneficial activities and polyphenolic content, mainly related to resveratrol and catechin, nonflavonoid and flavonoid compounds, respectively. Since grape juice is a complex mixture of compounds, involving these polyphenols were carried out in order to analyze their isolated influence on S. cerevisiae yeast model. Our results suggest that both polyphenols when applied in similar amountm have the same antioxidant potential. However, when studying strains proficient and deficient in antioxidant defense systems, the damages from stressor agents are reverted by both polyphenols, mainly under the action of catalase enzyme. Further studies with specific models of certain diseases or even with humans are needed. Our findings demonstrated that grape juice is a food rich in polyphenols, vitamin C and minerals which plays important in vitro and in vivo antioxidant activities.

A carne de frango, em razão da elevada concentração de ácidos graxos insaturados, é altamente suscetível ao processo de oxidação lipídica, que afeta sabor, aroma, cor e textura dos alimentos, limitando sua estabilidade e vida-útil. Devido à possível toxicidade dos antioxidantes sintéticos e à demanda atual por produtos mais saudáveis, o uso de antioxidantes naturais, como o extrato de semente e casca de uva, representa uma alternativa na prevenção da oxidação lipídica em carne de frango, além de permitir aproveitamento do resíduo do processamento do vinho e suco de uva. Assim, o objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar extratos de bagaço de uva (sementes e cascas) das variedades Isabel e Niágara (Vitis labrusca L.) quanto à atividade antioxidante em carne de frango processada crua e cozida. Foram adicionados à carne de frango 4 tipos de antioxidantes: butilhidroxitolueno; mistura comercial de eritorbato de sódio, ácido cítrico e açúcar; extrato de semente e casca de uva Isabel; extrato de semente e casca de uva Niágara; além do tratamento controle, sem antioxidante. A carne de frango foi processada no formato de mini-hambúrgueres, embalada a vácuo e armazenada sob congelamento (-18°C), durante 9 meses. As amostras foram caracterizadas através da determinação da composição centesimal. A cada três meses, foram realizadas análises de pH, cor instrumental, avaliação microbiológica, oxidação lipídica (valor das substâncias reativas ao ácido tiobarbitúrico TBARS) e análise sensorial. Não foi verificada alteração significativa (p>0,05) na composição centesimal e no valor de pH de amostras cruas e cozidas, em nenhum dos tratamentos analisados. Ambos os extratos de bagaço de uva mostraram efeito na inibição da oxidação lipídica da carne de frango crua e cozida, apresentando resultados comparáveis aos antioxidantes sintéticos utilizados. Houve interferência dos extratos de bagaço de uva na coloração da carne de frango cozida. Na análise de cor objetiva, os tratamentos com extrato de semente e casca de uvas Isabel e Niágara apresentaram-se mais escuros, menos avermelhados e com menor intensidade de cor amarela e, na análise subjetiva, as notas destes tratamentos, para o atributo alteração de cor, foram significativamente maiores (p<0,05) que as dos demais tratamentos. A coloração da carne de frango crua não foi afetada pela adição dos extratos. Através da análise sensorial, o extrato de bagaço de uva Isabel causou menor alteração no sabor e odor da carne de frango, apresentando resultados semelhantes aos antioxidantes sintéticos. Os resultados da análise microbiológica indicaram que as amostras de todos os tratamentos apresentaram-se dentro dos padrões estabelecidos pela legislação brasileira. A utilização de bagaço da indústria vinícola (semente e casca) como antioxidante natural, combinado com o uso da embalagem a vácuo e armazenamento congelado, pode ser considerada um método eficiente para retardar a oxidação lipídica de carne de frango processada, tanto crua, como cozida. Entretanto mais estudos devem ser conduzidos a fim de aprimorar a compatibilidade dos extratos ao produto, buscando minimizar suas interferências nas características sensoriais e organolépticas. / Chicken meat, due to the high concentration of unsaturated fatty acids, is highly susceptible to lipid oxidation, which affects taste, aroma, colour and texture of foods, limiting its stability and shelf-life. Due to the possible toxicity of synthetic antioxidants and the current demand for healthier products, the use of natural antioxidants, such as grape seed and peel extract, is an alternative in the prevention of lipid oxidation in chicken meat, and allows the use of residues from wine and grape juice processing. Thus, the objective of this study was to evaluate grape pomace extracts (seeds and peels) of Isabel and Niagara varieties (Vitis labrusca L.) on the antioxidant activity in raw and cooked processed chicken meat. Four types of antioxidants were added to chicken meat: butylhydroxytoluene; commercial mixture of sodium erythorbate, citric acid and sugar; Isabel grape seed and peel extract; Niagara grape seed and peel extract; and the control, without antioxidant. The chicken meat was processed in the form of mini-burgers, vacuum packaged and stored under freezing (-18°C) for 9 months. The samples were characterized by determining the proximate composition. Every three months, the following analyses were carried out: pH, instrumental color, microbiological evaluation, lipid oxidation (value of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances - TBARS) and sensory analysis. No significant changes (p>0.05) in proximate composition and pH values were observed for raw and cooked samples, in none of the treatments. Both grape pomace extracts showed effect on inhibiting lipid oxidation in raw and cooked chicken meat, with results comparable to synthetic antioxidants used. There was interference from grape pomace extracts in the color of cooked chicken meat. In the objective color analysis, Isabel and Niagara grape seed and peel extract treatments were darker, less red and with less intense yellow color, and in the subjective analysis, the scores for these treatments, for attribute color alteration, were significantly higher (p<0.05) than the other treatments. The color of raw chicken meat was not affected by the addition of extracts. Through sensory evaluation, the Isabel grape pomace extract caused less change in taste and odour of chicken meat, with results similar to synthetic antioxidants. The results of microbiological analysis indicated that samples from all treatments were within the standards established by Brazilian legislation. The use of pomace from the wine industry (seeds and peels) as natural antioxidant, combined with the use of vacuum packaging and frozen storage, can be considered an effective method to retard lipid oxidation in processed chicken meat, both raw and cooked. However, further studies should be conducted in order to improve the compatibility of the extracts to the product, aiming to minimize its interference in the sensorial and organoleptic characteristics.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Rio Grande do Sul (RS), the most important state of grape production in Brazil, harvests, approximately, 780 thousand tons annually. One of the biggest constraint factors to the obtainment of higher production numbers is the incidence of late season diseases in vineyards, being botrytis bunch rot, caused by Botrytis cinerea, one of the major contributors for field and post-harvest losses. Red grapes can show more resistance against this fungus, due to higher levels of phenolic compounds. The use of biological control agents (BCAs) emerges as a promising alternative to control botrytis disease. For this reason, the objectives of this study were to test isolates from this fungal pathogen, originated from the two main grape production regions in the state of RS, trough in vitro direct confront test against BCAs fungal isolates (Trichoderma spp. and Gliocladium sp.) and to test the same pathogen isolates on semi in vivo biological control, against the BCAs isolates which obtained the highest biological activity during the in vitro test, on the post-harvest storage of table grapes, on a red and a white cultivar. The B. cinerea isolates used were UFSM SG01, UFSM SG02, from serra (mountain range) region, UFSM CM01, and UFSM CM02, from campanha meridional (meridional pampas) region. The BCAs isolates used in this study were Tricoderma spp., UFSM T20, UFSM T17, UFSM T15.1 (obtained from soil), UFSM TSG, UFSM TCM (obtained from the same grape bunches where B. cinerea was isolated, representing each region), and Gliocladium sp., UFSM G4DB (obtained from soil). UFSM TSG, UFSM TCM and UFSM T15.1 showed the highest biocontrol activity (B. A.) in vitro, in general over 50% against all B. cinerea isolates. The same BCAs were selected to be used at the semi in vivo test with detached berries for three inoculation periods: B+T, pathogen and BCA inoculated at the same time; B+24hT, pathogen inoculated first and BCA 24 h later, T+24hB, BCA inoculated first and pathogen 24 h later. A higher control, considered as the lower damage level, on T+24hB period, showed the importance of preventive treatment. Cracks on berries played a more important role than the color of the skin for botrytis infection. / O Rio Grande do Sul, o estado produtor de uvas mais importante no Brasil, colhe em média 780 mil toneladas por ano. Um dos maiores entraves para a obtenção de maiores médias de produção é a incidência de doenças de final de ciclo (DFC), sendo Botrytis cinerea, agente causador da podridão-cinzenta, um dos maiores responsáveis por perdas de produção no campo e na pós-colheita. Uvas tintas podem apresentar maior resistência à podridão-cinzenta, devido à maior concentração de compostos fenólicos. O uso de agentes de controle biológico (BCAs) é uma alternativa promissora no controle da podridão de botrytis. Dessa maneira, os objetivos deste estudo foram testar isolados do patógeno coletados das duas principais regiões vitivinícolas do RS em confronto direto in vitro com isolados de agentes antagonistas (Trichoderma spp e Gliocladium sp.) e testar os mesmos isolados do patógeno em controle biológico semi in vivo com os isolados antagonistas que obtiveram as maiores médias de atividade de biocontrole no teste in vitro, na pós-colheita de uvas de mesa, em cultivares branca e tinta. Os isolados de B. cinerea empregados foram UFSM SG01, UFSM SG02, UFSM SG 03, oriundos da serra, e UFSM CM01 e UFSM CM02, oriundos da campanha meridional. Os isolados antagonistas empregados no teste in vitro foram UFSM T20, UFSM T17, UFSM T15.1 (oriundos de solo), UFSM TSG, UFSM TCM (oriundos de cachos de uva coletados nas mesmas regiões de coleta do patógeno), de Trichoderma spp., e UFSM G4DB, de Gliocladium sp.. Os isolados UFSM TSG, UFSM TCM e UFSM T15.1 foram os três que obtiveram as maiores médias de atividade de biocontrole, em geral acima de 50%, para todos os isolados de B. cinerea, testados em confronto direto in vitro. Esses isolados BCAs foram selecionados para o teste de controle biológico semi in vivo em bagas destacadas, em três períodos de inoculação: B+T, antagonista e patógeno aplicados ao mesmo tempo; B+24hT, patógeno inoculado primeiro e antagonista 24h após, T+24hB, antagonista aplicado primeiro e patógeno 24h após. O maior controle, assumido a partir do menor grau de dano, no período T+24hB, evidenciou a importância do tratamento preventivo. Rachaduras em bagas tiveram maior influência do que a coloração da casca na ocorrência da podridãocinzenta.

Thesis (M.Sc. (Agricultural Economics)) -- University of Limpopo, 2020 / Table grape production plays an important role in the economy of many countries in Africa. It serves as a source of income for people who are engaged in its production and being one of the fields that is labour-intensive, thereby providing employment for many people. The aim of this study was to analyse economic efficiency of table grape production in Waterberg and Sekhukhune districts of Limpopo Province, South Africa. The study used primary data collected from semi-structured questionnaires. A sampling technique called snowball, was used in the study as this method assisted in getting those farmers that were not easily accessible. The analytical tools employed to analyse data included descriptive statistics and Stochastic Frontier Model. Findings from the study revealed that the average age of table grape farmers was 47 years. On average, household size for table grape farmers was found to be 5 members. Also, findings revealed that table grape farmers on average had a farming experience of 16 years. Average household income was found to be R47 600, 00. Furthermore, the study revealed that the average years of schooling for the table grape farmers was 15 years and only 67% of these farmers have acquired a tertiary educational level, while 33% have acquired secondary educational level. In terms of efficiency, farming experience (P<0,00), educational level (P<0,05) household size (P<0,10) and age of farmer (P<0,10) were associated with increased efficiency as they were found to be significant at 1%, 5% and 10% confidence level. The findings also revealed that quantity of grapes produced was positively influenced by Farm size (P<0,00), labour (P<0,00), pesticides used (P<0,05) , extension services (P<0,05) and fertilisers (P<0,05). Technical efficiency among farmers was found to range from 0.8 to 1, with a mean of 0.89, thus this indicated possibility of improvement in production. However, the allocative efficiency was found to range from 0.47 to 1, with a mean of 0.68, this clearly indicated that some farmers were finding it difficult to allocate their resources efficiently. On the other hand, it was found that economic efficiency ranged from 0.56 to 1, with a mean of 0.73, this indicated that most of the farmers were economically efficient. Meanwhile, some of the constraints faced by the table grape farmers included high electricity bills and labour costs, as such the introduction of prepaid electricity in the farms could reduce the strain they go through. Based on the findings from the study, it was recommended that, since the production of grapes is a male-dominated enterprise, women and youth should also participate. Participation could be encouraged through provision of learnership skills on the farms.

Dans le vin rouge, les composés phénoliques sont souvent associés à la qualité du produit. Parmi eux, les anthocyanes sont responsables de la couleur du vin rouge et chaque cépage possède un génome spécifique déterminant le profil anthocyanique de chacun. Les pratiques culturales peuvent influencer l’accumulation de ces molécules dans la baie de raisin, tandis que les différentes techniques fermentaires peuvent modifier leur extraction. Les flavanols monomères, oligomères et polymères des pépins et des pellicules contribuent à l’amertume et l’astringence des vins. Pendant la vinification et l’élevage, ceux-ci réagissent avec les anthocyanes modifiant les propriétés du vin. De nombreuses publications concernant les caractéristiques sensorielles des flavanols ont été réalisées, alors que la contribution sensorielle des anthocyanes est encore mal connue. Cette thèse se décompose en deux parties. La première partie s’intéresse à l’étude de l’utilisation d’ozone gazeux comme technique pré-fermentaire sur les cépages rouges Nebbiolo et Barbera après récolte et pendant le passerillage. L’ozone est une technique innovante pour la réduction des contaminations microbiennes et la réduction du dioxyde de soufre. L’influence de cette technique sur les parois cellulaire des pellicules, sur l’extraction, la concentration en flavanols et en anthocyanes pendant la macération a été évaluée. L’étude montre que l’ozone possède un impact sur la macération des raisins, induisant une extraction plus importante des anthocyanes dans le Nebbiolo. En revanche, l’ozone n’influence ni les anthocyanes moléculaires, ni le profil variétal de chaque cépage. Pendant le passerillage, l’inverse a été étudié. L’extraction des anthocyanes dans le Nebbiolo est diminuée. A l’inverse, bien que moins d’anthocyanes soient retrouvées dans le raisin de Barbera, le traitement ne possède aucun impact sur l’extraction de celles-ci. Concernant les flavanols, l’extraction est moins influencée par le traitement à l’ozone. Des différences ont été retrouvées dans le cépage Nebbiolo. Les flavonols sont plus concentrés après le traitement avec l’ozone sur les raisins post-récolte, alors qu’ils diminuent pendant le passerillage. La modification causée sur la paroi cellulaire par l’ozone ainsi que la dureté des pellicules pourraient prédire l’extraction des anthocyanes et des flavanols, grâce à des analyses multi-variées. En conséquence, le traitement avec l’ozone doit être adapté en fonction du cépage et du produit final désiré. Dans la deuxième partie, les anthocyanes des raisins ont été extraites à partir des raisins et ces extraits ont été fractionnés en trois fractions, glucoside, acetyl-glucoside et cinnamoyl-glucoside, par Chromatographie de Partage Centrifuge (CPC) et CLHP (Chromatographie Liquide Haute Performance) préparative. L’évaluation de l’astringence a été réalisée par des analyses de précipitation protéique avec une protéine modèle BSA (Bovine Serum Albumin) et des protéines salivaires, les anthocyanes réagissant avec ces dernières. Les analyses sensorielles et l’évaluation de l’astringence ont été combinées. La concentration en anthocyane diminue après le traitement avec les protéines salivaires, dans l’extrait total et dans les fractions, en particulier les cinnamoyl-glucosides apparaissent comme les plus réactives avec les protéines salivaires. Les seuils de perception gustatifs ont été calculés avec la méthode “Best estimate threshold” dans le vin modèle. Les fractions acétyl-glucosides et cinnamoyl-glucosides, suivies de la fraction glucoside, possèdent des seuils de perception plus bas aux concentrations retrouvées dans les vins. Les descripteurs associés à ces fractions sont l’amertume et l’astringence. Ces résultats démontreraient que les anthocyanes apportent une contribution sensorielle dans la perception du vin en bouche, corrélée à l’acétylation des molécules. / In red wine, phenolic compounds are generally associated with the quality of products. Among them, anthocyanins extracted from skins are responsible for wine colour. The grapevine genomes determine the anthocyanins profiles, but several factors in the vineyard can influence their accumulation, as well as post-harvest techniques can modify their extraction during winemaking. Monomeric, oligomeric and polymeric flavanols from skins and seeds contribute to astringency and bitterness of wine and during winemaking and ageing complexes formation with anthocyanins modifies wine characteristics. Several publications are available to understand flavanols sensory characteristics, whereas anthocyanins role has not consensus in scientific literature. This PhD thesis is composed by two parts. The first part deal with the evaluation of the use of gaseous ozone as post-harvest technique in red wine grapes Nebbiolo and Barbera used on both fresh grape and during withering. Ozone treatment is an innovative technology proved to avoid mycobiota spoilage and preserving from the use of sulphur dioxide. Its influence on flavanol and anthocyanin contents and extractabilities during maceration was evaluated, considering skin cell wall modification. In fresh grape, ozone influenced skin maceration for both the varieties, leading to a higher anthocyanin extraction in Nebbiolo grapes and lower in Barbera. Ozone did not influence the final individual anthocyanin extractability, respecting the varietal anthocyanin fingerprint. During dehydration, opposite trend was found: in Nebbiolo reported no change in the content of total anthocyanins just after ozone-assisted dehydration, but their extraction yield was lower. On the contrary, although lower contents of anthocyanins were found in Barbera grapes no differences in final extractability was found. Regarding oligomeric and polymeric flavanols, their extractability was less affected by the ozone treatment. Only in Nebbiolo, both oligomeric and polymeric flavanol extraction was increased in fresh grape, whereas it is slightly decrease during dehydration. The ozone-induced modification of skin cell wall composition together with skin hardness parameters fitted well in multivariate models to predict anthocyanins, oligomeric flavanols and polymeric flavanols extraction. Therefore, the ozone treatment should be adapted depending on the variety and on the target wine. In the second part, grape anthocyanins were isolated depending on the acylation patterns, i.e. glucoside, acetyl-glucoside, and cinnamoyl-glucoside by a combination of centrifugal partition chromatography (CPC) and preparative-HPLC. Protein precipitation analyses to assess astringency and sensorial analysis were carried out. Anthocyanins reacted with both bovine serum albumine and salivary proteins, in different extent, since higher interaction between anthocyanins and salivary proteins was found with a significative reduction of total extract and fractions glucoside, acetyl-glucoside, and cinnamoyl-glucoside. The latter in particular is the more reactive to salivary proteins. Sensorial analysis was carried out as detection threshold test. Best estimated threshold (BET) of anthocyanins were resulted in wine-range scale, in particular acetyl-glucoside and cinnamoyl-glucoside BET are lower of glucoside threshold, and descriptors reported were astringency and bitterness. These results show that anthocyanins can be detected as in-mouth properties contributors, and the magnitude of their involvement is related to anthocyanins acylation.

Orientador: Marco Antonio Tecchio / Resumo: O trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar o potencial produtivo das videiras, além de determinar o conteúdo de ácidos orgânicos, açúcares, compostos bioativos e a atividade antioxidante em uvas e sucos de uva de cultivares Vitis labrusca e híbridas cultivadas sobre diferentes portaenxertos sob condições tropicais na região Noroeste do Sudeste do Brasil. O experimento foi realizado em vinhedo do Instituto Agronômico, em Votuporanga, Estado de São Paulo. Foram avaliadas as cultivares Isabel Precoce, BRS Carmem, BRS Cora e IAC 138-22 ‘Máximo’ enxertadas sobre os portaenxertos IAC 766 ‘Campinas e IAC 572 ‘Jales’. As características produtivas das videiras foram avaliadas em dois ciclos produtivos (2017/2018). Os resultados mostraram que as cultivares BRS Carmem, BRS Cora e Isabel Precoce foram significativamente mais produtivas em relação à IAC 138-22 ‘Máximo’. A uva ‘Isabel Precoce’ apresentou características físico-químicas que atendem os padrões de sólidos solúveis e acidez exigidos pela legislação, o que pode representar uma grande vantagem ao produtor na busca de diferentes cultivares para blends em processamento de suco de uva. Em relação aos portaenxertos, o IAC 766 ‘Campinas’ proporcionou maior produtividade às copas, maior número de cachos por plantas, além de maior massa fresca do cacho. Ocorreu correlação positiva entre o conteúdo fenólico, antocianinas e atividades antioxidantes para as cultivares analisadas. Maiores teores de antocianinas e compostos fenólicos foram obti... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / Abstract: The aim of this study consisted of evaluating yield potential of grapevines, besides of determining content of organic acids, sugars, bioactive compounds and antioxidant activity in grapes and grape juices of the cultivars Vitis labrusca and hybrid cultivars grafted on different rootstock under tropical conditions in northwestern of the Southeast region of Brazil. The experiment was conducted in the Instituto Agronômico’s vineyards at Votuporanga, São Paulo state. The cultivars assessed were Isabel Precoce, BRS Carmem, BRS Cora and IAC 138-22 ‘Máximo’, grafted in the rootstocks IAC 766 ‘Campinas’ and IAC 572 ‘Jales’. The highest yields were observed in the cultivars BRS Carmem, BRS Cora and Isabel Precoce that were statistically superior compared to IAC 138-22 ‘Máximo’. Physiochemical characteristics of the grape Isabel Precoce has attended standards of the Brazilian legislation for soluble solids concentration and titratable acidity, which can be an advantage to producers seeking different cultivars for grape juice blends. Regarding rootstocks, the highest yields, number of clusters per vine and highest dry weight of the cluster were obtained using ‘IAC 766’. A positive correlation between phenolics content, anthocyanins and antioxidants activities was observed in all cultivars. Higher content of anthocyanins and phenolic compounds were obtained in grapes of the cultivar IAC 138-22 ‘Máximo’ and greater antioxidant activity was found in grapes of the cultivars BRS Cora when a... (Complete abstract click electronic access below) / Mestre

Orientador: Giuseppina Pace Pereira Lima / Coorientador: Marco Antonio Tecchio / Banca: Sarita Leonel / Banca: Cristine Vanz Borges / Resumo: A uva 'Niagara Rosada' é muito consumida devido as suas qualidades nutricionais, aroma e sabor, além de apresentar grande diversidade de compostos fitoquímicos, principalmente de polifenóis. Na pós-colheita, o ácido salicílico (AS) surge como uma alternativa de baixo custo e de fácil acesso visando reduzir as perdas pós-colheita. Com a intenção de aumentar o tempo de prateleira, foi estudado a aplicação exógena de ácido salicílico em pré-colheita, para melhorar a qualidade pós-colheita de uvas 'Niagara Rosada' (Vitis labrusca L.). O AS foi aplicado em 5 diferentes doses, em dois estágios na pré-colheita, na época de chumbinho e durante a mudança de cor. Os resultados mostram que concentrações de 1 e 2 mmol.L-1 foram eficientes na redução da incidência de podridões e degrana das bagas. A aplicação exógena de AS proporcionou aumento de compostos fenólicos. Dentre os ácidos fenólicos, houve aumento de ácido clorogênico e ácido gálico, relacionados com ação antifúngica. Entre os polifenóis, rutina, cianidina-3,5-diglucosideo e delfinidina 3-O-glicosideo foram os compostos majoritários encontrados em todos os tratamentos. Aplicação de 1 e 2 mmol.L-1 AS aumenta a vida pós-colheita, melhora a qualidade bioquímica do mosto e induz aumento de compostos antioxidantes. / Abstract: The 'Niagara Rosada' grape is very consumed due their nutritional qualities and flavor, besides presenting great diversity of phytochemical compounds, mainly polyphenols. Grapes are non-climacteric fruit and due to the low physiological activity, there are a limiting shelf life. Salicylic acid (SA) appears as a low-cost alternative in the postharvest because it have easy access (low cost) and can mitigate the post-harvest losses. Aiming increasing the shelf life, the exogenous application of salicylic acid in pre-harvest was studied to improve post-harvest quality of cv. Niagara Rosada (Vitis labrusca L.). SA was applied in 5 different doses, in two stages during the pre-harvest, i.e., in the season of berry growth and during veraison. The results shows that 1 and 2 mmol.L-1 were efficient in reducing the incidence of rot and decay of berries. Treatments with SA provided an increase in phenolic compounds. Among the phenolic acids, there was an increase of chlorogenic acid and gallic acid, related to antifungal action. About the polyphenols, rutin, cyanidin-3,5-diglucoside and 3-O-glycosidic delphinidin were the major compounds found in all treatments. Thus, exogenous treatment using 1 and 2 mmol.L-1 SA increases postharvest life, improves must biochemical quality of the wort and induces increased antioxidant compounds. / Mestre

La presente investigación tiene como objetivo analizar los factores que influyeron en el incremento de las exportaciones de uvas frescas de la región de Ica bajo el TLC Perú-China del periodo 2008-2019. Donde se investigó, como esta integración comercial benefició al Perú para generar una mayor exportación en sus productos agropecuarios, en este caso la uva. En el primer capítulo, se presentan los antecedentes; bases teóricas de internacionalización, negociación internacional, factores determinantes de empresas exportadoras y la descripción de la uva. En el segundo capítulo, se muestra el análisis del contexto de la investigación y se plantea el problema, los objetivos y las hipótesis. En el tercer capítulo, se describe la metodología, la cual es mixta, también se menciona los perfiles de empresas exportadoras de uvas y se encuentra la relación entre las variables de cada factor. Para ello, se entrevistó a empresas exportadoras de uvas de Ica. En el cuarto capítulo, se presenta la aplicación, estructura y análisis de las encuentras elaboradas a expertos y especialistas en comercio internacional y en exportación de uvas. Así mismo, se analizan los resultados obtenidos del SPSS. En el quinto capítulo, se validan las hipótesis planteadas para esta investigación. Finalmente, en el sexo capítulo, se describe las conclusiones y recomendaciones de los resultados elaborados en este estudio. / This research aims to analyze the factors that influenced the increase in exports of fresh grapes from the Ica region under the Peru-China FTA of 2008-2019. Where it was investigated, how this commercial integration benefited Peru to generate a greater export in its agricultural products, in this case the grape. In the first chapter, the background is presented; theoretical bases of internationalization, international negotiation, determining factors of the exporting companies and the description of the grape. In the second chapter, the analysis of the research context is shown and the problem, objectives and hypotheses are presented. In the third chapter, the methodology is described, which is mixed, the profiles of the grape exporting companies are also mentioned and the relationship between the variables of each factor is found. To do this, Ica grape exporting companies were interviewed. In the fourth chapter, its application, structure and analysis are presented to experts and specialists in international trade and export of grapes. Likewise, the results obtained from the SPSS are analyzed. In the fifth chapter, the hypotheses proposed for this investigation are validated. Finally, in the sex chapter, the conclusions and recommendations of the results elaborated in this study are described. / Tesis