No description available.

La maturation des cellules lymphoïdes T est un processus thymique hautement régulé au cours duquel les réarrangements ordonnés des loci du TCRδ, y, β et enfin α déterminent le développement des lignées yδ et αβ. Les remaniements somatiques des segments géniques V, (D) et J du TCR font intervenir les protéines RAG1/2, les séquences RSS jouxtant ces segments et des éléments régulateurs (enhancers) assurant une cis-régulation de ce processus. Le contrôle de la recombinaison V(D)J se fait grâce à divers mécanismes incluant des mécanismes épigénétiques, l’intervention de facteurs de transcription et la conformation/séquence des RSS. Dans ce travail, nous montrons que les réarrangements du locus TCRδ sont strictement ordonnés chez l’Homme. Le premier réarrangement Dδ2-Dδ3 se produit à un stade ETP (Early T-cell Precursor) CD34+/CD1a-/CD7+dim, et précède systématiquement le réarrangement Dδ2-Jδ1. L’analyse in silico du locus a permis d’identifier un site de fixation clé pour le facteur de transcription RUNX1 à proximité immédiate de l’heptamètre Dδ2-23RSS chez l’Homme mais absent chez la souris. Le recrutement de RUNX1 sur ce site dans les thymocytes très immatures CD34+/CD3- permet d’augmenter l’affinité de fixation des protéines RAG1/2 sur le Dδ2-23RSS de manière spécifique. Ce travail identifie un rôle original de cofacteur de RUNX1 au cours de la recombinaison V(D)J dans la thymopoïèse humaine. Une série d’analyses épigénétiques exhaustives, menées dans le cadre du projet Européen Blueprint, sur les sous-populations thymiques humaines, nous a permis d’établir que l’enhanceosome du TCRα est constitué, comme chez la souris, dès les étapes les plus précoces de la thymopoïèse sans pour autant pouvoir s’activer avant la fin de la β-sélection. Nos résultats préliminaires suggèrent que les protéines homéotiques HOXA (notamment HOXA9) répriment l’activité de l’enhancer alpha (et donc les réarrangements du TCRα en interagissant avec le facteur de transcription ETS1 via leurs homéodomaines. Leur répression, induite par le passage de la β-sélection, aboutit à l’ouverture chromatinienne des segments Vα/Jα via l’activation du TCRα. Ces résultats apportent un éclairage nouveau sur le découplage jusqu’ici inexpliqué entre la formation de l’enhanceosome du TCRα à un stade très immature et son activation, permettant les réarrangements du locus, à un stade thymique bien plus tardif. / Maturation of T lymphoid cells is a highly regulated process where ordered thymic rearrangements at the TCRδ, TCRy, TCRβ and finally TCRα loci determine the development into either yδ or αβ T-cell lineages. Somatic rearrangements of V, (D), and J gene segments of TCR loci involve RAG1/2 proteins, RSS sequences juxtaposing V, D, and J genes segments and regulatory elements (enhancers) providing a cis-regulation of this process. The control of the V(D)J recombination is achieved through various mechanisms including epigenetic modifications, involvement of transcription factors and RSS conformation/sequence. In this work, we show that TCRδ rearrangements are strictly ordered in Humans. The first Dδ2-Dδ3 rearrangement occurs at ETP (Early T-Cell Precursor) stage CD34+/CD1a-/CD7+dim, and always precedes Dδ2-Jδ1 rearrangement. In-silico analysis of the locus identified a key binding site for a transcription factor RUNX1 in close proximity to the Dδ2-23RSS heptamer in human, but not in mice. The RUNX1 recruitment at this site in immature CD34+/CD3- thymocytes increases binding affinity of RAG1/2 proteins. This work identifies an original cofactor of human VDJ recombination. A set of comprehensive epigenetic analysis conducted within the Europeen Blueprint project on human thymic subpopulations allowed as to establish that the TCRα enhanceosome (Eα), as in mice, is already formed from the earliest stages of thymopoiesis without being able to be activated before the end of β-selection. Our preliminary results suggest that HOXA homeobox proteins (including HOXA9) suppress the activity of the Eα (thus TCRα rearrangements) by interacting with the transcription factor ETS1 via their homeodomains. Induced by β-selection HOXA repression results in the chromatin opening of the Vα/Jα gene segments through TCRα activation. These finding shed new light on the so far unexplained shift observed between the formation of Eα enhanceosome at a very immature stages and its activation at a much later developmental stages.

A natureza heterogênea da Leucemia Mielóide Aguda (LMA) tornou-se um desafio para o sucesso da quimioterapia convencional com o agente Citarabina (Ara-C), especialmente em leucemias com prognóstico desfavorável, como aquelas portadoras do rearranjo MLL. Visto que as células de LMA-MLL são consideradas sensíveis ao Ara-C quando comparadas às leucemias que não apresentam o rearranjo, mas a recaída à doença é frequente, a presente tese propôs estudar a relação entre características biológicas relacionadas às bases da resistêmcia ao Ara-C em LMA-MLL. A abordagem proposta foi a seleção de subpopulações de linhagens celulares portadoras do rearranjo MLL submetidas ao tratamento em longo prazo com Ara-C, comparando-as com as linhagens não expostas à droga. As células foram caracterizadas quanto: 1) ao potencial proliferativo na presença ou ausência de Ara-C; 2) a distribuição das células no ciclo celular; 3) a distribuição de marcadores clássicos de superfície de células-tronco hematopoiéticas, CD34 e CD38; e 4) o perfil de expressão global dos RNAs transcritos. O tratamento em longo prazo selecionou células mais resistentes ao Ara-C que as células parentais. Além disso, quanto ao ciclo celular, as células selecionadas com Ara-C apresentaram apoptose reduzida (fase sub-G1), acúmulo na fase de síntese (fase S) e aumento da capacidade proliferativa após reexposição à droga (fase G2-M). Quanto à análise de marcadores de células-tronco hematopoiéticas, observou-se que após o tratamento em longo com Ara-C, uma das linhagens celulares apresentou distribuição bimodal do marcador CD38. Quando separadas por sorting em citometria de fluxo, observou-se que as subpopulações com níveis distintos de expressão de CD38, denominadas MV-4-11 CD38High e MV-4-11 CD38Low apresentaram resposta distinta ao tratamento com Ara-C. Quando avaliadas quanto ao perfil global de expressão gênica, constatou-se que MV-4-11 CD38High eram mais semelhantes às células parentais, e que MV-4-11 CD38Low formavam um grupo isolado, distinto das outras duas populações celulares. A análise de ontologia gênica (GO) evidenciou que entre as categorias mais representativas de processos biológicos estavam atividades associadas à capacidade proliferativa, ao desenvolvimento e a resposta a estímulos. As análises de agrupamentos hierárquicos mostraram que: 1) o cluster de genes do desenvolvimento HOXA estava mais expresso nas células MV-4-11 CD38Low do que em MV-4-11 CD38High, que apresentaram expressão mais elevada do cluster HOXB; 2) o gene HOX mais diferencialmente expresso foi HOXA13, associado na literatura com prognóstico desfavorável em outros tipos de câncer; 3) dos genes associados a resposta a estímulos, o único relacionado à via de metabolização do Ara-C diferencialmente expresso entre as linhagens foi NME1; 4) aqueles que participam das vias de reparo de pareamento incorreto, reparo por excisão de bases e por excisão de nucleotídeos encontraram-se mais expressos nas células MV-4-11 CD38High que em MV-4-11 CD38Low. Além disso, diversas quinases dependentes de ciclinas (CDKs) também estiveram diferencialmente expressas entre MV-4-11 CD38High e MV-4-11 CD38Low. Sugere-se por fim, que o modelo in vitro proposto neste estudo para simular a situação de resistência ao Ara-C em subpopulações de LMA-MLL, demonstrou que os mecanismos de resposta à Citarabina nesta doença, vão além de alterações na detoxificação e metabolização da droga, e parecem mais associados a vantagens proliferativas e do desenvolvimento das células leucêmicas. Estas vias devem ser exploradas como alvos potenciais na terapia combinada ao Ara-C. / The heterogeneity of Acute Myeloid Leukemia (AML) became a challenge for the success of the conventional chemotherapy agent Cytarabine (Ara-C), especially in leukemias with poor prognosis, as those harboring MLL rearrangement. Since AML-MLL cells are considered sensitive to Ara-C when compared with leukemias that do not carry the rearrangement, but relapse is frequent, the present dissertation proposed to study the relationship between biological characteristics related to the basis of chemoresistance to Ara-C in AML-MLL. We proposed an approach based on the selection of subpopulations of cell lines bearing MLL rearrangement submitted to the long-term treatment with Ara-C, comparing them with the cell lines that were not previously exposed to the drug. The cells were characterized according to: 1) the proliferative potential in the presence and absence of Ara-C; 2) the distribution of the cells in the cell cycle; 3) distribution of hematopoietic stem cell classic surface markers, CD34 and CD38; and, 4) global expression profile of transcribed RNAs. The long-term treatment selected cells that are more resistant to Ara-C than the cells that were not previously treated (parental cells). Besides, according to cell cycle, the cells selected by Ara-C treatment present decreased apoptosis (sub-G1 phase), accumulation in the synthesis phase (S-phase) and increase in the proliferative capability after re-exposition to the drug (G2-M phase). Regarding the hematopoietic stem cell markers, we observed that after Ara-C long-term treatment, one of the cell lines exhibited a bimodal distribution of the CD38 marker. When sorted by flow cytometry, we observed that both subpopulations with distinct levels of CD38 expression, called MV-4-11 CD38High and MV-4-11 CD38Low also showed distinct response to Ara-C. When evaluated regarding to their global gene expression profiles, we verified that MV-4-11 CD38High were more closely related to the parental cells, and MV-4-11 CD38Low made up an isolated group, distinct of the other cell populations. Gene ontology (GO) analysis revealed that among the most representative categories of biological processes, activities associated with proliferative capability, development and response to stimuli were included. The hierarchical clustering analysis showed that: 1) the cluster HOXA of genes of development was more expressed in the MV-4-11 CD38Low than in the MV-4-11 CD38High cells, that presented increased expression of HOXB cluster; 2) the most differentially expressed HOX gene was HOXA13, which according to the literature is associated with poor prognosis in other types of cancer; 3) among the genes associated with response to stimuli, the only one related to Ara-C-metabolizing pathway that was differentially expressed between the cell lines was NME1; 4) those genes that take part in the mismatch repair, base excision repair and nucleotide excision repair pathways were more expressed in the MV-4-11 CD38High than in the MV-4-11 CD38Low cells. Additionally, several cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) were also differentially expressed between MV-4-11 CD38High and MV-4-11 CD38Low. Finally, we suggest that the in vitro model proposed in this study to mimic the situation of chemoresistance to Ara-C in subpopulations of AML-MLL, showed that the mechanisms of Ara-C response in this disease, go beyond changes in drug detoxification and metabolization, and seem more associated to proliferative and development advantages of the leukemic cells. These pathways should be explored as potential targets to Ara-C combination therapies.

No description available.

Les cellules T mémoires (Tm) protègent l’organisme contre les réinfections de pathogènes qu’il a déjà combattu. Les Tm possèdent plusieurs propriétés en commun avec les cellules souches hématopoïétiques (CSH), notamment la capacité de se différencier, de s’auto-renouveler et de maintenir une population relativement constante au sein de l’organisme via des mécanismes homéostatiques. Il a été démontré que Hoxb4, un membre de la famille des facteurs de transcription Hox, était capable d’induire l’expansion des CSH in vivo et in vitro de façon rapide. Au vu de ces parallèles, nous avons posé l’hypothèse que la surexpression de Hoxb4 pourrait induire l’expansion de populations de Tm. Nous avons analysé les populations de Tm et lymphocytes T naïfs (Tn) dans les organes lymphoïdes de souris transgéniques surexprimant Hoxb4 et les avons comparées à des souris de type sauvage (wt). Alors que la fréquence des cellules T matures Hoxb4 diminuait avec l’âge, leur phénotype ainsi que leur viabilité demeuraient inchangés. Ensuite, nous avons procédé à des transplantations en compétition de Tm (CD4+CD44hi) Hoxb4 et wt chez des hôtes dépourvus de lymphocytes T (CD3-/-) dans le but d’évaluer leur contribution à la reconstitution du compartiment T après 2 mois. Au final, les Tm wt avait contribué un peu plus que les Tm Hoxb4 à la reconstitution (~60%). Des analyses fonctionnelles et phénotypiques ont montré que les Tm Hoxb4 possédaient une fonctionnalité normale, mais se distinguaient des Tm wt par la présence d’une faible population qui présentait un phénotype « mémoire central » (Tcm), conférant habituellement une longévité accrue. Les cellules des ganglions lymphatiques totaux des hôtes furent transplantées de façon sérielle chez trois générations de nouveaux hôtes. Le phénotype Tcm observés chez les Tm Hoxb4 était récapitulé chez les hôtes secondaires uniquement. Les ratios sont demeurés en faveur des Tm wt lors des deux transplantations suivantes, mais les Tm Hoxb4 ont commencé à montrer un avantage compétitif chez certains hôtes quaternaires. Une transplantation en compétition à court terme de Tm Hoxb4 et wt marqués avec un marqueur cytoplasmique ont démontré la présence chez les Tm Hoxb4 seulement d’une faible population CD62Lhi proliférant lentement. Ainsi, l’expansion préférentielle de Tcm CD4 par le biais d’une sélection ou d’une différenciation induite par la surexpression de Hoxb4 pourrait potentiellement leur permettre de maintenir un état de quiescence leur permettant de persister plus longtemps suite à des transplantations sérielles. / Memory T cells (Tm) protect the organism against reinfection from pathogens they’ve already encountered. Tm share characteristics with hematopoietic stem cells (HSC), such as the capacity to differentiate, self-renew and maintain a relatively constant population via homeostatic mechanisms. Hoxb4, a member of the Hox genes family of transcription factors, has been shown to expand HSCs rapidly in vivo and in vitro. Thus, drawing from these parallels we hypothesise that Hoxb4 overexpression could lead to expansion of Tm populations. Tm and naïve T cell (Tn) populations were analysed in the lymphoid organs of young and aged transgenic mice overexpressing Hoxb4 in comparison with wild type (wt) mice. While the frequencies of mature Hoxb4 T cells in lymphoid organs seemed to decline with age, the phenotype or the cell viability remained unaffected. Next, CD4+CD44hi Hoxb4 Tm were transferred into T cell deficient (CD3-/-) hosts in competition with wt CD4+CD44hi Tm and evaluated for their contribution to T cell reconstitution after 2 months. Engraftment of wt Tm in secondary lymphoid organs was slightly higher than Hoxb4 Tm (~60%). Functional assays and phenotypic analysis showed that Hoxb4 Tm exhibited normal functionality, but in contrast to wt Tm, a fraction of Hoxb4 Tm exhibited a more central memory (Tcm) phenotype, indicative of a longer lifespan. Total lymph nodes from hosts were serially re-transplanted for three generations. The Tcm phenotype of the Hoxb4 Tm present in the primary hosts was recapitulated in the secondary but not in the tertiary hosts. The ratios remained in favor of the wt Tm after two subsequent expansion rounds, but Hoxb4 Tm showed a competitive advantage over wt Tm in some quaternary hosts. Cell tracking of a short term transplantation of Hoxb4 and wt Tm in competition exposed a small population of CD62Lhi cells displaying slow proliferation in the Hoxb4 Tm only. Thus preferential CD4+ Tcm expansion by selection or differentiation could potentially allow Hoxb4 Tm to persist longer following serial transplantations due to a more quiescent state.

A natureza heterogênea da Leucemia Mielóide Aguda (LMA) tornou-se um desafio para o sucesso da quimioterapia convencional com o agente Citarabina (Ara-C), especialmente em leucemias com prognóstico desfavorável, como aquelas portadoras do rearranjo MLL. Visto que as células de LMA-MLL são consideradas sensíveis ao Ara-C quando comparadas às leucemias que não apresentam o rearranjo, mas a recaída à doença é frequente, a presente tese propôs estudar a relação entre características biológicas relacionadas às bases da resistêmcia ao Ara-C em LMA-MLL. A abordagem proposta foi a seleção de subpopulações de linhagens celulares portadoras do rearranjo MLL submetidas ao tratamento em longo prazo com Ara-C, comparando-as com as linhagens não expostas à droga. As células foram caracterizadas quanto: 1) ao potencial proliferativo na presença ou ausência de Ara-C; 2) a distribuição das células no ciclo celular; 3) a distribuição de marcadores clássicos de superfície de células-tronco hematopoiéticas, CD34 e CD38; e 4) o perfil de expressão global dos RNAs transcritos. O tratamento em longo prazo selecionou células mais resistentes ao Ara-C que as células parentais. Além disso, quanto ao ciclo celular, as células selecionadas com Ara-C apresentaram apoptose reduzida (fase sub-G1), acúmulo na fase de síntese (fase S) e aumento da capacidade proliferativa após reexposição à droga (fase G2-M). Quanto à análise de marcadores de células-tronco hematopoiéticas, observou-se que após o tratamento em longo com Ara-C, uma das linhagens celulares apresentou distribuição bimodal do marcador CD38. Quando separadas por sorting em citometria de fluxo, observou-se que as subpopulações com níveis distintos de expressão de CD38, denominadas MV-4-11 CD38High e MV-4-11 CD38Low apresentaram resposta distinta ao tratamento com Ara-C. Quando avaliadas quanto ao perfil global de expressão gênica, constatou-se que MV-4-11 CD38High eram mais semelhantes às células parentais, e que MV-4-11 CD38Low formavam um grupo isolado, distinto das outras duas populações celulares. A análise de ontologia gênica (GO) evidenciou que entre as categorias mais representativas de processos biológicos estavam atividades associadas à capacidade proliferativa, ao desenvolvimento e a resposta a estímulos. As análises de agrupamentos hierárquicos mostraram que: 1) o cluster de genes do desenvolvimento HOXA estava mais expresso nas células MV-4-11 CD38Low do que em MV-4-11 CD38High, que apresentaram expressão mais elevada do cluster HOXB; 2) o gene HOX mais diferencialmente expresso foi HOXA13, associado na literatura com prognóstico desfavorável em outros tipos de câncer; 3) dos genes associados a resposta a estímulos, o único relacionado à via de metabolização do Ara-C diferencialmente expresso entre as linhagens foi NME1; 4) aqueles que participam das vias de reparo de pareamento incorreto, reparo por excisão de bases e por excisão de nucleotídeos encontraram-se mais expressos nas células MV-4-11 CD38High que em MV-4-11 CD38Low. Além disso, diversas quinases dependentes de ciclinas (CDKs) também estiveram diferencialmente expressas entre MV-4-11 CD38High e MV-4-11 CD38Low. Sugere-se por fim, que o modelo in vitro proposto neste estudo para simular a situação de resistência ao Ara-C em subpopulações de LMA-MLL, demonstrou que os mecanismos de resposta à Citarabina nesta doença, vão além de alterações na detoxificação e metabolização da droga, e parecem mais associados a vantagens proliferativas e do desenvolvimento das células leucêmicas. Estas vias devem ser exploradas como alvos potenciais na terapia combinada ao Ara-C. / The heterogeneity of Acute Myeloid Leukemia (AML) became a challenge for the success of the conventional chemotherapy agent Cytarabine (Ara-C), especially in leukemias with poor prognosis, as those harboring MLL rearrangement. Since AML-MLL cells are considered sensitive to Ara-C when compared with leukemias that do not carry the rearrangement, but relapse is frequent, the present dissertation proposed to study the relationship between biological characteristics related to the basis of chemoresistance to Ara-C in AML-MLL. We proposed an approach based on the selection of subpopulations of cell lines bearing MLL rearrangement submitted to the long-term treatment with Ara-C, comparing them with the cell lines that were not previously exposed to the drug. The cells were characterized according to: 1) the proliferative potential in the presence and absence of Ara-C; 2) the distribution of the cells in the cell cycle; 3) distribution of hematopoietic stem cell classic surface markers, CD34 and CD38; and, 4) global expression profile of transcribed RNAs. The long-term treatment selected cells that are more resistant to Ara-C than the cells that were not previously treated (parental cells). Besides, according to cell cycle, the cells selected by Ara-C treatment present decreased apoptosis (sub-G1 phase), accumulation in the synthesis phase (S-phase) and increase in the proliferative capability after re-exposition to the drug (G2-M phase). Regarding the hematopoietic stem cell markers, we observed that after Ara-C long-term treatment, one of the cell lines exhibited a bimodal distribution of the CD38 marker. When sorted by flow cytometry, we observed that both subpopulations with distinct levels of CD38 expression, called MV-4-11 CD38High and MV-4-11 CD38Low also showed distinct response to Ara-C. When evaluated regarding to their global gene expression profiles, we verified that MV-4-11 CD38High were more closely related to the parental cells, and MV-4-11 CD38Low made up an isolated group, distinct of the other cell populations. Gene ontology (GO) analysis revealed that among the most representative categories of biological processes, activities associated with proliferative capability, development and response to stimuli were included. The hierarchical clustering analysis showed that: 1) the cluster HOXA of genes of development was more expressed in the MV-4-11 CD38Low than in the MV-4-11 CD38High cells, that presented increased expression of HOXB cluster; 2) the most differentially expressed HOX gene was HOXA13, which according to the literature is associated with poor prognosis in other types of cancer; 3) among the genes associated with response to stimuli, the only one related to Ara-C-metabolizing pathway that was differentially expressed between the cell lines was NME1; 4) those genes that take part in the mismatch repair, base excision repair and nucleotide excision repair pathways were more expressed in the MV-4-11 CD38High than in the MV-4-11 CD38Low cells. Additionally, several cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) were also differentially expressed between MV-4-11 CD38High and MV-4-11 CD38Low. Finally, we suggest that the in vitro model proposed in this study to mimic the situation of chemoresistance to Ara-C in subpopulations of AML-MLL, showed that the mechanisms of Ara-C response in this disease, go beyond changes in drug detoxification and metabolization, and seem more associated to proliferative and development advantages of the leukemic cells. These pathways should be explored as potential targets to Ara-C combination therapies.

Les gènes Hox sont essentiels à la mise en place de l’identité des cellules le long de l’axe antéropostérieur des embryons et pourraient agir en aval de l’acide rétinoïque pendant la formation du cœur. Nous montrons que les gènes Hoxb1, Hoxa1 et Hoxa3 définissent des sous-domaines du second champ cardiaque. L’analyse de lignage génétique révèle que les progéniteurs cardiaques Hoxb1+ contribuent aux oreillettes et à la partie inférieure de la voie efférente, futur myocarde sous-pulmonaire. Les progéniteurs Hoxa1+ contribuent à la partie distale de la voie efférente, suggérant un rôle de ces gènes Hox antérieurs dans sa régionalisation proximo-distale. Alors qu’aucune anomalie cardiaque n’avait été décrite chez les mutants Hoxb1, notre étude détaillée des fœtus Hoxb1-/- révèle des défauts d’alignement des gros vaisseaux ainsi que des communications interventriculaires. L’utilisation d’un marqueur du myocarde sous-pulmonaire, montre une contribution anormale des cellules du second champ cardiaque à cette région chez les mutants. Nous montrons que ces défauts sont la conséquence de la dérégulation des voies de signalisation présentes dans le second champ cardiaque. En accord avec ces observations, les embryons ont une voie efférente plus courte. L’étude des mutants Hoxa1 révèle des malformations des arcs pharyngés puis des anomalies de la crosse aortique chez les fœtus. L’analyse des doubles mutants, montre une augmentation de la pénétrance et de la sévérité de ces défauts, suggérant une interaction synergique entre Hoxa1 et Hoxb1 lors de la formation des gros vaisseaux. Ces résultats révèlent un rôle crucial des gènes Hox antérieurs dans le développement du cœur. / Hox genes are known to be involved in the establishment of cell position and identity along the anterior-posterior axis in embryos and could act as key downstream effectors of retinoic acid during heart development. In situ hybridization experiments show that Hoxb1, Hoxa1 and Hoxa3 define sub-domains within the second heart field (SHF). Our genetic lineage analysis reveals the contribution of Hoxb1+ cardiac progenitors to the atria and to the inferior wall of the outflow tract (OFT), which then gives rise to the myocardium at the base of the pulmonary trunk. Interestingly, Hoxa1+ progenitors contribute to the distal part of the OFT suggesting that these anterior Hox genes could play a role in its proximo-distal patterning. No cardiac anomalies had been reported so far in Hoxb1 mutant mice. However, our detailed study shows that mutant fetuses exhibit OFT misalignment and ventricular septal defects associated or not with ventricular wall and epicardium anomalies. Using a marker of the sub-pulmonary myocardium, we observe an abnormal contribution of SHF cells in Hoxb1-/- hearts. This defect is the consequence of the dysregulation of the signaling pathways controlling SHF regulation. Accordingly, those embryos exhibit a shorter OFT. The study of Hoxa1 mutant embryos reveals pharyngeal arch arteries patterning defects causing anomalies of the aortic arch and right subclavian artery at fetal stages. Using compound mutants, we show an increase in the penetrance and severity of these defects, suggesting a synergistic interaction between Hoxa1 and Hoxb1 during aortic arch patterning. Together, these data support a crucial role for anterior Hox genes in cardiac development.

No description available.

Einleitung: Die Osteoarthritis ist für einen Großteil der Lahmheiten beim Pferd verantwortlich. Durch die starken Belastungen der equinen Gelenke schreitet die Osteoarthritis unweigerlich fort und setzt diese Tiere einem hohen Leidensdruck aus. Bisherige Therapien reichen nicht aus, um in osteoarthritischen Gelenken die physiologische Integrität des Knorpels wiederherzustellen. Humane und caprine nasale Knorpelzellen zeigten in präklinischen und klinischen Studien ein hohes Regenerationspotential und eine hohe Integrität nach autologer Implantation in Defekte des Gelenkknorpels. Dies wurde auf ihr „Hox-Gen-negatives“ Expressionsprofil zurückgeführt, das sich nach der Implantation dem des artikulären Knorpels anpasste. Ziel der Studie: Das Hox-Genexpressionsprofil nasaler Chondrozyten sollte mit denen artikulärer Chondrozyten in der Zellkultur verglichen werden, um den nasalen Knorpel auch beim Pferd als mögliche autologe Knorpelquelle zu identifizieren. Tiere, Material und Methoden: Knorpelgewebe wurde von 7 verstorbenen Pferden aus dem Nasenseptum und einem vorderen sowie hinterem Fesselgelenk entnommen, Chondrozyten isoliert und bis zur vierten Passage zweidimensional kultiviert. Während der Kultivierung wurden die Chondrozyten alle 3 bis 4 Tage mittelseines eigens erstellten Beurteilungsbogens evaluiert. Zellen aus der ersten (T1) und der dritten (T2) Subkultivierung wurden lysiert, die RNA extrahiert und in cDNA umgeschrieben. Es folgte eine qPCR, um die Expressionslevel von drei Hox-Genen (A3, D1, D8) und zwei knorpeltypischen Genen (SOX9, Kollagen II) an den drei verschiedenen Lokalisationen während T1 und T2 zu bestimmen. Die Quantifizierung der relativen Genexpression erfolgte anschließend mit der ΔΔCT-Methode unter Verwendung von RPL32 und GAPDH als Housekeeping-Gene. Zur statistischen Auswertung wurden die Multiple Lineare Regression, eine einfaktorielle Varianzanalyse (ANOVA) und ein zweiseitiger t-Test herangezogen. Die Signifikanzniveaus aller statistischen Tests wurden auf α= 0,05 festgesetzt. Ergebnisse: Die Hox-Genexpressionen unterschieden sich in Bezug auf die drei Lokalisation und die Messzeitpunkte nicht signifikant voneinander. Die nasalen Chondrozyten wiesen während der ersten Subkultivierung gegenüber den artikulären Chondrozyten signifikant höhere Kollagen-II-Expressionen auf. Eine „Hox-Gen-negative“ Expression konnte für die Tierart Pferd nicht bestätigt werden. Die vorliegende Arbeit zeigt, dass Pferde wahrscheinlich ein speziesspezifisches Hox- Gen-Expressionsmuster aufweisen und dass die equinen Hox-Genexpressionsprofile statistisch signifikanten individuellen Einflüssen unterliegen. Schlussfolgerung: Das equine Hox-Genexpressionsprofil unterliegt statistisch signifikanten individuellen Einflüssen, die bei einer potenziellen Zelltherapie zu beachten sind. Nasale Chondrozyten eignen sich beim Pferd aufgrund ihrer genetischen Ähnlichkeit, bezogen auf die Expressionen der untersuchten Hox-Gene, zu artikulären Chondrozyten und ihrer hohen Bereitschaft zur Kollagen-II-Bildung wahrscheinlich als potenzielle Quelle für die autologe chondrozytäre Implantation (ACI).:1. Einleitung ...................................................................................................... 1 2. Literaturübersicht .......................................................................................... 2 2.1 Knorpel ..................................................................................................... 2 2.1.1 Allgemeiner Überblick ....................................................................... 2 2.1.2 Chondrogenese und Regeneration .................................................. 3 2.1.3 Intraartikulärer Hyaliner Knorpel ....................................................... 3 2.1.4 Extraartikulärer Hyaliner Knorpel....................................................... 6 2.2 Osteoarthritis bei Mensch und Pferd ........................................................ 8 2.2.1 Bedeutung und Ätiologie ................................................................... 8 2.2.2 Pathogenese ..................................................................................... 9 2.2.3 Diagnostik ........................................................................................ 10 2.2.4 Bisherige Therapieansätze .............................................................. 12 2.3 Knorpelgewebe in der Forschung .............................................................13 2.3.1 Kultivierung von Chondrozyten ......................................................... 13 2.3.2 Tiermodelle in der Osteoarthritisforschung ....................................... 15 2.3.3 Neue Therapieansätze ..................................................................... 17 2.3.3.1 Stammzellbasierte Verfahren ...................................................... 17 2.3.3.2 Artikuläre autologe Chondrozyten .............................................. 19 2.3.3.3 Nasale Chondrozyten ................................................................. 21 2.4 Hox-Gene ................................................................................................ 22 2.4.1 Allgemeiner Überblick ..................................................................... ..22 2.4.2 Regulation der Hox-Gene ................................................................. 23 2.4.3 Erkrankungen im Zusammenhang mit Hox-Genen ........................... 25 3. Ziel der Studie ........................................................................................... 27 4. Publikation ................................................................................................ 28 5. Diskussion................................................................................................. 45 5.1 Primer ....................................................................................................46 5.2 Auswahl der Messzeitpunkte und Proben ............................................. 47 5.3 Hox-Genprofile kultivierter equiner Chondrozyten ................................ 49 5.4 Individuelle Hox-Genprofile ................................................................... 50 5.5 SOX9 und Kollagen II .............................................................................51 5.6 Hox-Genprofile im Vergleich verschiedener Spezies ............................. 53 5.7 Ausblick ................................................................................................ 53 6. Schlussfolgerung ...................................................................................... 55 7. Zusammenfassung ................................................................................... 56 8. Summary .................................................................................................. 58 9. Referenzen .............................................................................................. 60 9.1 Literaturverzeichnis .............................................................................. 60 9.2 Abbildungsverzeichnis.......................................................................... 71 10. Anhang .................................................................................................. 72 10.1 Evaluierungsbogen Chondrozytenkulturen ........................................ 72 10.2 Auszug aus der Korrelationsmatrix ..................................................... 73 10.3 Publikationsverzeichnis Christiane Storch .......................................... 74 11. Danksagung .......................................................................................... 75 / Introduction: Osteoarthritis is responsible for most of the lameness in horses. Due to severe stress on equine joints, osteoarthritis inevitably progresses and results in a high degree of suffering. Current therapeutic options are not sufficient to restore the physiological integrity of the cartilage in osteoarthritic joints. Human and caprine nasal chondrocytes demonstrated high regenerative potential and integrity after autologous implantation into articular cartilage defects in preclinical and clinical studies. This was attributed to their “Hox gene negative” expression profile, matching the profile of articular cartilage after implantation. Aim of the study: The Hox gene expression profile of nasal chondrocytes was compared with those of articular chondrocytes in a cell culture to address nasal cartilage as a possible autologous source also in horses. Animals, Material and Methods: Cartilage was harvested from the nasal septum, one anterior and one posterior fetlock joint of deceased 7 horses, chondrocytes were isolated and cultured two-dimensionally until the fourth passage. During cultivation, chondrocytes were evaluated every 3 to 4 days using a specially designed assessment sheet. Cells were harvested during the first (T1) and third (T2) subcultivation. RNA was extracted and transcribed into cDNA. Subsequently, qPCR was performed to determine the expression levels of three Hox genes (A3, D1, D8) and two tissue-identifying genes (SOX9, collagen II) of the three locations after T1 and T2. Quantification of relative gene expression was performed with the ΔΔCT method using RPL32 and GAPDH as housekeeping genes. Multiple linear regression, one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), and two-tailed t-test were used for statistical analysis. The significance levels of all statistical tests were set at α= 0.05. Results: Hox gene expressions were not significantly different in terms of localization and measurement time points. Nasal chondrocytes exhibited significantly higher collagen II expression than articular chondrocytes during the first subcultivation. 'Hox gene negative' expression could not be confirmed in horses. This study demonstrates that equine Hox gene expression pattern is likely species-specific and that equine Hox gene expression profiles are subject to statistically significant individual influences. Conclusion: The equine Hox gene expression profile is subject to statistically significant individual influences that should be considered in potential cell therapy. Nasal chondrocytes are probably suitable as a potential source for autologous chondrocyte implantation (ACI) in horses due to their genetic similarity, in terms of the expressions of the examined Hox genes, to articular chondrocytes and their high propensity for collagen II formation.:1. Einleitung ...................................................................................................... 1 2. Literaturübersicht .......................................................................................... 2 2.1 Knorpel ..................................................................................................... 2 2.1.1 Allgemeiner Überblick ....................................................................... 2 2.1.2 Chondrogenese und Regeneration .................................................. 3 2.1.3 Intraartikulärer Hyaliner Knorpel ....................................................... 3 2.1.4 Extraartikulärer Hyaliner Knorpel....................................................... 6 2.2 Osteoarthritis bei Mensch und Pferd ........................................................ 8 2.2.1 Bedeutung und Ätiologie ................................................................... 8 2.2.2 Pathogenese ..................................................................................... 9 2.2.3 Diagnostik ........................................................................................ 10 2.2.4 Bisherige Therapieansätze .............................................................. 12 2.3 Knorpelgewebe in der Forschung .............................................................13 2.3.1 Kultivierung von Chondrozyten ......................................................... 13 2.3.2 Tiermodelle in der Osteoarthritisforschung ....................................... 15 2.3.3 Neue Therapieansätze ..................................................................... 17 2.3.3.1 Stammzellbasierte Verfahren ...................................................... 17 2.3.3.2 Artikuläre autologe Chondrozyten .............................................. 19 2.3.3.3 Nasale Chondrozyten ................................................................. 21 2.4 Hox-Gene ................................................................................................ 22 2.4.1 Allgemeiner Überblick ..................................................................... ..22 2.4.2 Regulation der Hox-Gene ................................................................. 23 2.4.3 Erkrankungen im Zusammenhang mit Hox-Genen ........................... 25 3. Ziel der Studie ........................................................................................... 27 4. Publikation ................................................................................................ 28 5. Diskussion................................................................................................. 45 5.1 Primer ....................................................................................................46 5.2 Auswahl der Messzeitpunkte und Proben ............................................. 47 5.3 Hox-Genprofile kultivierter equiner Chondrozyten ................................ 49 5.4 Individuelle Hox-Genprofile ................................................................... 50 5.5 SOX9 und Kollagen II .............................................................................51 5.6 Hox-Genprofile im Vergleich verschiedener Spezies ............................. 53 5.7 Ausblick ................................................................................................ 53 6. Schlussfolgerung ...................................................................................... 55 7. Zusammenfassung ................................................................................... 56 8. Summary .................................................................................................. 58 9. Referenzen .............................................................................................. 60 9.1 Literaturverzeichnis .............................................................................. 60 9.2 Abbildungsverzeichnis.......................................................................... 71 10. Anhang .................................................................................................. 72 10.1 Evaluierungsbogen Chondrozytenkulturen ........................................ 72 10.2 Auszug aus der Korrelationsmatrix ..................................................... 73 10.3 Publikationsverzeichnis Christiane Storch .......................................... 74 11. Danksagung .......................................................................................... 75