Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Esse estudo buscou investigar o papel do estresse oxidativo e nitrosativo no enfisema pulmonar induzido por elastase. Foram utilizados camundongos machos C57BL/6 submetidos a dois modelos de indução do enfisema por elastase pancreática suína (PPE): intratraqueal (i.t.) e intranasal (i.n.). No modelo intratraqueal a PPE foi instilada nas doses de 0,05 U ou 0,5 U/camundongo para avaliação temporal do enfisema 7, 14 e 21 dias após instilação de PPE. Em outra etapa, o papel da iNOS foi avaliado através da sua inibição farmacológica por aminoguanidina (AMG) 1% na água de beber ou pela sua exclusão genética em camundongos deficientes em iNOS que tiveram o enfisema induzido por 0,5 U PPE i.t. após 21 dias. No modelo intranasal a dose de PPE foi 3 U/camundongo para avaliação temporal do enfisema (1, 7, 14 e 21 dias após PPE). O papel do estresse oxidativo e nitrosativo foi avaliado com diferentes tratamentos antioxidantes na água de beber: tempol, apocinina+alopurinol, n-acetilcisteína, vitamina C+E, e aminoguanidina durante os 21 dias de indução do enfisema. Os grupos controles foram submetidos à instilação de salina. Lavado broncoalveolar, imunoensaios, análises bioquímicas de estresse oxidativo e ensaios morfométricos foram realizados nos pulmões dos animais. O enfisema foi histologicamente alcançado em 21 dias após 0,5 U PPE i.t., evidenciado pelo aumento do diâmetro alveolar médio Lm e da densidade de volume dos espaços alveolares - Vvair em comparação ao grupo controle. TNF-α foi aumentado em 7 e 14 dias após 0,5 U PPE comparados ao controle, concomitante com a redução de IL-10 nos mesmos períodos, comparados ao controle. O estresse oxidativo foi observado na fase inicial do enfisema, com aumento dos níveis de nitrito, TBARS e superóxido dismutase no grupo 7 dias após 0,5 U PPE (i.t.) quando comparados ao controle ao passo que no modelo intranasal as alterações típicas do estresse foram vistas no grupo 1 dia após 3 U de PPE. Atividade da glutationa peroxidase foi aumentada em todos os grupos PPE (i.t.). A exposição à 0,5 U PPE induziu o aumento da iNOS, eNOS e nitrotirosina, sendo revertido no grupo PPE+AMG. Os animais tratados com AMG 1% e os deficientes em iNOS tiveram o enfisema atenuado histologicamente, mantendo o Lm e o Vvair semelhantes ao grupo controle. Os grupos tratados com n-acetilcisteína e aminoguanidina no modelo i.n. tiveram redução do Lm quando comparados ao grupo PPE. Esses resultados sugerem que as vias de estresse oxidativo e nitrosativo são disparadas pela produção de óxido nítrico via iNOS no enfisema pulmonar. A modulação da iNOS parece uma estratégia promissora no estabelecimento do enfisema pulmonar / This study investigated the role of oxidative and nitrosative stress in elastase-induced pulmonary emphysema. C57BL/6 male mice were used submitted to two models of emphysema induced by porcine pancreatic elastase (PPE): intratracheal (i.t.) and intranasal (i.n.). In the intratracheal model PPE was instilled at doses of 0.05 U or 0.5 U/mouse (i.t.) to temporal evaluation of emphysema 7, 14 and 21 days post-PPE instillation. Others sets of experiments, the role of iNOS was evaluated through its pharmacology inhibition by 1% aminoguanidine (AMG) into the drinking water or bt iNOS genetic exclusion in iNOS-deficient mice which had induced emphysema by 0.5 U PPE i.t. after 21 days. In the intranasal model the PPE dose was 3 U/mouse to temporal evaluation of emphysema (1, 7, 14 and 21 days after PPE). The role of oxidative and nitrosative stress was evaluated using different antioxidant treatments into the drinking water: tempol, apocynin+allopurinol, N-acetylcysteine, vitamin C+E and aminoguanidine during the 21 days of emphysema induction. Control groups were instilled with saline. Bronchoalveolar lavage, immunoassays, biochemical analysis of oxidative stress and morphometric tests were performed in the lungs of animals. The emphysema was histologically reached 21 days after 0.5 U PPE, as evidenced by an increase in alveolar diameter - Lm and volume density of the alveolar spaces - Vvair compared to the control group. TNF-α was increased in 7 and 14 days after 0.5 U PPE compared to the control, concomitant with reduction of IL-10 at the same time-points compared to the control. Oxidative stress was observed in the early stages of emphysema, with increased levels of nitrite, TBARS and superoxide dismutase in group 7 days after 0.5 U PPE (i.t.) compared to the control, while in the intranasal model the typical stress alterations were seen in group 1 day after 3 U PPE. Glutathione peroxidase activity was increased in all PPE groups (i.t.). Exposure to 0.5 U PPE induced the increase of iNOS, eNOS and nitrotyrosine, being reversed in the AMG+PPE group. Animals treated with 1% AMG and the iNOS deficient had emphysema histologically attenuated keeping Lm and Vvair similar to the control group. The groups treated with n-acetylcysteine and aminoguanidine in the intranasal model presented reduction of Lm when compared to PPE group. These results suggest that the process of oxidative and nitrosative stress are triggered by nitric oxide production via iNOS in pulmonary emphysema. iNOS modulation seems a promising strategy in the establishment of pulmonary emphysema

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Esse estudo buscou investigar o papel do estresse oxidativo e nitrosativo no enfisema pulmonar induzido por elastase. Foram utilizados camundongos machos C57BL/6 submetidos a dois modelos de indução do enfisema por elastase pancreática suína (PPE): intratraqueal (i.t.) e intranasal (i.n.). No modelo intratraqueal a PPE foi instilada nas doses de 0,05 U ou 0,5 U/camundongo para avaliação temporal do enfisema 7, 14 e 21 dias após instilação de PPE. Em outra etapa, o papel da iNOS foi avaliado através da sua inibição farmacológica por aminoguanidina (AMG) 1% na água de beber ou pela sua exclusão genética em camundongos deficientes em iNOS que tiveram o enfisema induzido por 0,5 U PPE i.t. após 21 dias. No modelo intranasal a dose de PPE foi 3 U/camundongo para avaliação temporal do enfisema (1, 7, 14 e 21 dias após PPE). O papel do estresse oxidativo e nitrosativo foi avaliado com diferentes tratamentos antioxidantes na água de beber: tempol, apocinina+alopurinol, n-acetilcisteína, vitamina C+E, e aminoguanidina durante os 21 dias de indução do enfisema. Os grupos controles foram submetidos à instilação de salina. Lavado broncoalveolar, imunoensaios, análises bioquímicas de estresse oxidativo e ensaios morfométricos foram realizados nos pulmões dos animais. O enfisema foi histologicamente alcançado em 21 dias após 0,5 U PPE i.t., evidenciado pelo aumento do diâmetro alveolar médio Lm e da densidade de volume dos espaços alveolares - Vvair em comparação ao grupo controle. TNF-α foi aumentado em 7 e 14 dias após 0,5 U PPE comparados ao controle, concomitante com a redução de IL-10 nos mesmos períodos, comparados ao controle. O estresse oxidativo foi observado na fase inicial do enfisema, com aumento dos níveis de nitrito, TBARS e superóxido dismutase no grupo 7 dias após 0,5 U PPE (i.t.) quando comparados ao controle ao passo que no modelo intranasal as alterações típicas do estresse foram vistas no grupo 1 dia após 3 U de PPE. Atividade da glutationa peroxidase foi aumentada em todos os grupos PPE (i.t.). A exposição à 0,5 U PPE induziu o aumento da iNOS, eNOS e nitrotirosina, sendo revertido no grupo PPE+AMG. Os animais tratados com AMG 1% e os deficientes em iNOS tiveram o enfisema atenuado histologicamente, mantendo o Lm e o Vvair semelhantes ao grupo controle. Os grupos tratados com n-acetilcisteína e aminoguanidina no modelo i.n. tiveram redução do Lm quando comparados ao grupo PPE. Esses resultados sugerem que as vias de estresse oxidativo e nitrosativo são disparadas pela produção de óxido nítrico via iNOS no enfisema pulmonar. A modulação da iNOS parece uma estratégia promissora no estabelecimento do enfisema pulmonar / This study investigated the role of oxidative and nitrosative stress in elastase-induced pulmonary emphysema. C57BL/6 male mice were used submitted to two models of emphysema induced by porcine pancreatic elastase (PPE): intratracheal (i.t.) and intranasal (i.n.). In the intratracheal model PPE was instilled at doses of 0.05 U or 0.5 U/mouse (i.t.) to temporal evaluation of emphysema 7, 14 and 21 days post-PPE instillation. Others sets of experiments, the role of iNOS was evaluated through its pharmacology inhibition by 1% aminoguanidine (AMG) into the drinking water or bt iNOS genetic exclusion in iNOS-deficient mice which had induced emphysema by 0.5 U PPE i.t. after 21 days. In the intranasal model the PPE dose was 3 U/mouse to temporal evaluation of emphysema (1, 7, 14 and 21 days after PPE). The role of oxidative and nitrosative stress was evaluated using different antioxidant treatments into the drinking water: tempol, apocynin+allopurinol, N-acetylcysteine, vitamin C+E and aminoguanidine during the 21 days of emphysema induction. Control groups were instilled with saline. Bronchoalveolar lavage, immunoassays, biochemical analysis of oxidative stress and morphometric tests were performed in the lungs of animals. The emphysema was histologically reached 21 days after 0.5 U PPE, as evidenced by an increase in alveolar diameter - Lm and volume density of the alveolar spaces - Vvair compared to the control group. TNF-α was increased in 7 and 14 days after 0.5 U PPE compared to the control, concomitant with reduction of IL-10 at the same time-points compared to the control. Oxidative stress was observed in the early stages of emphysema, with increased levels of nitrite, TBARS and superoxide dismutase in group 7 days after 0.5 U PPE (i.t.) compared to the control, while in the intranasal model the typical stress alterations were seen in group 1 day after 3 U PPE. Glutathione peroxidase activity was increased in all PPE groups (i.t.). Exposure to 0.5 U PPE induced the increase of iNOS, eNOS and nitrotyrosine, being reversed in the AMG+PPE group. Animals treated with 1% AMG and the iNOS deficient had emphysema histologically attenuated keeping Lm and Vvair similar to the control group. The groups treated with n-acetylcysteine and aminoguanidine in the intranasal model presented reduction of Lm when compared to PPE group. These results suggest that the process of oxidative and nitrosative stress are triggered by nitric oxide production via iNOS in pulmonary emphysema. iNOS modulation seems a promising strategy in the establishment of pulmonary emphysema

Bei der Bestrahlung von Kopf-Hals-Tumoren tritt die orale Mukositis als wichtigste und dosislimitierende frühe Nebenwirkung auf. Verschiedene prophylaktische und therapeutische Maßnahmen wurden untersucht, jedoch konnte bisher keine Methode in der klinischen Routine etabliert werden. Ein neuer Ansatz ist die Verwendung des Cholesterinsynthese-hemmers Lovastatin. Für diesen Wirkstoff konnte in vorhergehenden Untersuchungen ein mukoprotektiver Effekt nachgewiesen werden. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde der Zusammenhang zwischen diesem schleimhaut-schützenden Effekt und der Expression von induzierbarer Stickstoffmonoxid-Synthase (iNOS), Nitrotyrosin (NT) und CD105 betrachtet. Das Enzym iNOS ist an Entzündungsreaktionen beteiligt; NT stellt ein Folgeprodukt des durch iNOS gebildeten Stickstoffmonoxids dar. CD105 wird von aktivierten Monozyten und Makrophagen exprimiert. Ausgangsmaterial für die vorliegende Studie waren 174 Präparate aus dem vorangegangenen Tierversuch. In diesem wurde bei Mäusen eine fraktionierte Schnauzenbestrahlung zum Teil mit einer Lovastatingabe kombiniert. Zusätzlich wurden Tiere alleinig mit Lovastatin behandelt. Für diesen Versuch wurden Mäuse des Stammes C3H/Neu verwendet. Die Bestrahlung erfolgte mit 5 x 3 Gy über zwei Wochen. Lovastatin wurde in einer Dosis von 16 mg/kg oral verabreicht. Gegenstand der aktuellen Untersuchung war - neben der allgemeinen histologischen Charakterisierung - die immunhistochemische Darstellung von iNOS, NT und CD105 im Epithel der Zungenunterseite sowie im subepithelialen Gewebe. Ausgewertet wurden die Gesamtzellzahl im Epithel, die Zahl iNOS- und NT-positiver Zellkerne in Germinativ- und funktioneller Schicht sowie jeweils die Farbintensität der positiven Epithelzellen. In der L. propria und L. muscularis wurden die CD105-, iNOS-, und NT-positiven Makrophagen sowie die weiteren iNOS- und NT-positiven Immunzellen erfasst und ihre Farbintensität bestimmt. Weiterhin wurde die Homogenität und Intensität der Expression von iNOS im Endothel bewertet. Die Auswertung umfasst die deskriptive Darstellung der Werteverläufe dieser Parameter. Aufgrund der geringen Anzahl von drei Versuchstieren je Tag und Gruppe wurde auf die Berechnung der statistischen Signifikanz der Ergebnisse verzichtet. Die Gesamtzellzahl im Zungenepithel zeigte bei Bestrahlung eine deutliche Reduktion auf 65 % des Ausgangswertes. Mit Beendigung der Behandlung war eine entsprechende Erholung zu sehen. Die alleinige Lovastatinbehandlung bewirkte dagegen eine Steigerung der Gesamtzell-zahl auf ca. 110 %. Während iNOS sowohl im unbehandelten als auch im behandelten Epithelgewebe nachweisbar war, war NT im unbehandelten Epithel kaum vorhanden. Die Ausgangswerte betrugen 22 % iNOS-positive Kerne in der Germinativschicht und 8 % in der funktionellen Schicht, sowie 2 % und 1 % für die NT-Färbung. In der Germinativschicht waren sowohl bei alleiniger Bestrahlung als auch bei alleiniger Lovastatintherapie 30 - 50 % der Zell-kerne iNOS-positiv. Bei zweiwöchiger Kombinationstherapie lagen die Werte teils darunter; bei Lovastatingabe ab Tag 7 lagen sie vornehmlich in dem oberen Bereich. In der funktionellen Schicht spiegelten sich diese Verteilungsmuster wider, allerdings lag die Anzahl positiver Kerne insgesamt überwiegend unter 30 %. Die Zahl NT-positiver Zellkerne stieg in beiden Schichten infolge der Bestrahlung auf ca. 50 - 60 %. Unter alleiniger Lovastatintherapie lag sie unter 30 %. Die zweiwöchige Kombination zeigte ebenfalls eine Tendenz zum niederen Bereich. Bei Lovastatingabe ab Tag 7 lagen die Werte geringgradig vermehrt im höheren Bereich. Die Anfärbung der Makrophagen gegen CD105 verdeutlichte bei allen Gruppen eine Reduktion der Makrophagenzahl auf ca. 50 % des Ausgangswertes. Auch die Zahl iNOS-positiver Makrophagen reduzierte sich in allen Behandlungsgruppen einheitlich auf unter 80 % der Norm. Die Zahl NT-positiver Makrophagen lag näher am Ausgangswert. Im Gegensatz dazu waren die restlichen Immunzellen unter Behandlung vermehrt iNOS-positiv. Die Werte lagen häufig weit oberhalb des Referenzbereichs. Dabei zeigte im Vergleich die alleinige Bestrahlung die niedrigsten Werte mit maximal 136 % der Norm. Bei der Färbung gegen NT konnten nur bei alleiniger Lovastatinverabreichung konstant Werte oberhalb des Ausgangswertes festgestellt werden. Innerhalb der Untersuchungen konnte das Endothel nur mit iNOS-AK auswertbar angefärbt werden. Es zeigte in allen Gruppen eine durchgängig homogene Färbung. Die Farbintensität war mittelmäßig und wurde in allen Behandlungsgruppen zum Ende des Untersuchungszeitraums kräftiger. Als Resultat dieser Arbeit ist festzuhalten, dass bei allen vier Behandlungsvarianten iNOS und NT in hohem Maße in der Germinativschicht des Epithels exprimiert wurden. In der funktionellen Schicht war die Expression von iNOS schwächer, während die NT-expression nahezu gleich blieb. Damit muss NT eine längere Halbwertszeit haben. Des Weiteren waren nicht alle aktivierten (CD105-positiven) Makrophagen iNOS-positiv und wiederum produzierte iNOS nicht in allen Zellen NT. Dies wurde auch durch die deutlich höhere Zahl iNOS-positiver Immunzellen in den Ll. propriae und musculares deutlich. Die biochemischen Abläufe, durch welche Lovastatin zur Reduktion der radiogenen Mucositis enoralis führt, bleiben daher weiterhin zu erforschen. In der durchgeführten Untersuchung zeigte sich kein eindeutiger Hinweis auf einen Zusammenhang mit dem iNOS-NT-Signaltransduktionsweg.:Abkürzungsverzeichnis VIII 1 Einleitung 1 2 Literaturübersicht 3 2.1 Bedeutung von Tumorerkrankungen bei Mensch und Tier 3 2.2 Kopf-Hals-Tumoren 4 2.2.1 Tumorvorkommen beim Menschen 4 2.2.2 Tumorvorkommen bei Hund und Katze 4 2.2.3 Symptome beim Kleintier 5 2.2.4 Behandlungsmethoden 5 2.2.4.1 Chirurgie 5 2.2.4.2 Chemotherapie 5 2.2.4.3 Radiotherapie 6 2.2.4.4 Radiochemotherapie 7 2.2.5 Nebenwirkungen der Tumorbehandlung 7 2.2.5.1 Nebenwirkungen der Chemotherapie 7 2.2.5.2 Nebenwirkungen der Radiotherapie 8 2.3 Mucositis enoralis 8 2.3.1 Aufbau von Zunge und Zungenepithel 8 2.3.2 Pathogenese und zeitlicher Verlauf der radiogenen oralen Mukositis 10 2.3.2.1 Stadien der Mukositis und klinisches Erscheinungsbild 10 2.3.2.2 Reaktionskette der Strahlenwirkung 11 2.3.3 Einteilung des Schweregrades der Mukositis 12 2.3.3.1 Einteilung für die Humanmedizin 12 2.3.3.2 Einteilung für die Veterinärmedizin 13 2.3.4 Aktuelle Herangehensweise an die radiogene orale Mukositis 13 2.4 Lovastatin 14 2.4.1 Struktur und Anwendung 14 2.4.2 Weitere Wirkmechanismen von Statinen 14 2.4.2.1 Die apoptotische Wirkung der Statine 15 2.4.3 Eigenschaften im Tiereinsatz 15 2.5 Induzierbare Stickstoffmonoxid-Synthase und Nitrotyrosin 16 2.5.1 Die NOS und Nitrotyrosinbildung 16 2.5.2 Vorkommen von iNOS und Nitrotyrosin 17 3 Zielstellung der Arbeit 19 4 Material und Methoden 20 4.1 Versuchstiere 20 4.2 Perkutane Schnauzenbestrahlung 20 4.3 Applikation von Lovastatin 22 4.4 Versuchsprotokoll 22 4.5 Histologische Aufbereitung 23 4.5.1 Antikörper 23 4.5.1.1 Induzierbare Stickstoffmonoxid-Synthase (iNOS) 23 4.5.1.2 Nitrotyrosin 23 4.5.1.3 CD105 ... 23 4.5.1.4 Kontroll-Antikörper 23 4.5.2 Färbeprotokolle 24 4.5.2.1 iNOS und CD105 24 4.5.2.2 Nitrotyrosin 26 4.5.2.3 Optimierung der Konzentration der primären Antikörper 27 4.5.3 Histologische Auswertung 29 4.5.3.1 Epithel .. 29 4.5.3.2 L. propria und L. muscularis 30 4.5.3.3 Endothel 31 4.6 Analyse 31 5 Ergebnisse 32 5.1 Zellzahlen im Epithel 32 5.1.1 Kontrollgruppe 32 5.1.2 Alleinige Bestrahlung 32 5.1.3 Alleinige Lovastatinbehandlung 33 5.1.4 Bestrahlung und Lovastatingabe von Tag 0 bis 14 34 5.1.5 Bestrahlung und Lovastatingabe von Tag 7 bis 14 34 5.2 Expression von iNOS 36 5.2.1 Kontrollgruppe 36 5.2.2 Alleinige Bestrahlung 36 5.2.3 Alleinige Lovastatingabe 38 5.2.4 Bestrahlung und Lovastatingabe von Tag 0 bis 14 41 5.2.5 Bestrahlung und Lovastatingabe von Tag 7 bis 14 43 5.3 Expression von Nitrotyrosin 45 5.3.1 Kontrollgruppe 45 5.3.2 Alleinige Bestrahlung 45 5.3.3 Alleinige Lovastatinbehandlung 47 5.3.4 Bestrahlung und Lovastatingabe von Tag 0 bis 14 49 5.3.5 Bestrahlung und Lovastatingabe von Tag 7 bis 14 51 5.4 Expression von CD105 54 5.4.1 Alleinige Bestrahlung 54 5.4.2 Alleinige Lovastatinbehandlung 54 5.4.3 Bestrahlung und Lovastatingabe von Tag 0 bis 14 55 5.4.4 Bestrahlung und Lovastatingabe von Tag 7 bis 14 55 6 Diskussion 57 6.1 Klinischer Hintergrund 57 6.2 Tiermodelle für die radiogene orale Mukositis 58 6.2.1 Maus 58 6.2.2 Ratte 58 6.2.3 Hamster 58 6.3 Eigenschaften des unbehandelten Zungengewebes 59 6.3.1 Epithel der Zungenunterseite 59 6.3.1.1 Zellzahl . .59 6.3.1.2 Nachweis von iNOS 59 6.3.1.3 Nachweis von Nitrotyrosin 60 6.3.2 Immunzellen in der L. propria und L. muscularis 60 6.3.2.1 Nachweis von iNOS 60 6.3.2.2 Nachweis von Nitrotyrosin 60 6.3.2.3 Nachweis von CD105 60 6.3.3 Endothelien der L. propria und L. muscularis 60 6.4 Veränderungen bei konventioneller fraktionierter Bestrahlung 61 6.4.1 Epithel der Zungenunterseite 61 6.4.1.1 Zellzahl . 61 6.4.1.2 Nachweis von iNOS 61 6.4.1.3 Nachweis von Nitrotyrosin 62 6.4.2 Immunzellen in der L. propria und L. muscularis 62 6.4.2.1 Nachweis von iNOS 62 6.4.2.2 Nachweis von Nitrotyrosin 62 6.4.2.3 Nachweis von CD105 63 6.4.3 Endothelien der L. propria und L. muscularis 63 6.5 Veränderungen bei alleiniger Lovastatinbehandlung 63 6.5.1 Epithel der Zungenunterseite 63 6.5.1.1 Zellzahl . 63 6.5.1.2 Nachweis von iNOS 63 6.5.1.3 Nachweis von Nitrotyrosin 64 6.5.2 Immunzellen in der L. propria und L. muscularis 64 6.5.2.1 Nachweis von iNOS 64 6.5.2.2 Nachweis von Nitrotyrosin 64 6.5.2.3 Nachweis von CD105 64 6.5.3 Endothelien der L. propria und L. muscularis 65 6.6 Veränderungen bei fraktionierter Bestrahlung mit zusätzlicher Lovastatinbehandlung über 2 Wochen 65 6.6.1 Epithel der Zungenunterseite 65 6.6.1.1 Zellzahl . 65 6.6.1.2 Nachweis von iNOS 65 6.6.1.3 Nachweis von Nitrotyrosin 66 6.6.2 Immunzellen in den L. propria und L. muscularis 66 6.6.2.1 Nachweis von iNOS 66 6.6.2.2 Nachweis von Nitrotyrosin 67 6.6.2.3 Nachweis von CD105 67 6.6.3 Endothelien der L. propria und L. muscularis 67 6.7 Veränderungen bei fraktionierter Bestrahlung mit zusätzlicher Lovastatinbehandlung ab Tag 7 68 6.7.1 Epithel der Zungenunterseite 68 6.7.1.1 Zellzahl . 68 6.7.1.2 Nachweis von iNOS 68 6.7.1.3 Nachweis von Nitrotyrosin 68 6.7.2 Immunzellen in der L. propria und L. muscularis 69 6.7.2.1 Nachweis von iNOS 69 6.7.2.2 Nachweis von Nitrotyrosin 69 6.7.2.3 Nachweis von CD105 69 6.7.3 Endothelien der L. propria und L. muscularis 70 6.8 Zusammenfassende Einschätzung der Ergebnisse 70 7 Ausblick 72 8 Zusammenfassung 73 9 Summary 75 10 Abbildungsverzeichnis 77 11 Tabellenverzeichnis 80 12 Literatur 81 13 Anhang 92 14 Danksagung 100 / During radiation of head-and-neck-cancer oral mucositis is the most important and dose-limiting early side effect. Different preventive and theoretical procedures were investigated, but so far there has been no method established in clinical routine. A new approach is the application of the cholesterol synthesis inhibitor lovastatin. Previous investigtions proved a mucoprotective effect of this agent. In this investigation the correlation between this mucoprotective effect and the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), nitrotyrosine (NT) and CD105 was observed. The enzyme iNOS takes part in inflammtory reactions; NT is a secondary product of the nitric oxide produced by iNOS. CD105 is expressed by activated monocytes and macrophages. The source material for this study were 174 preparations from previous animal examinations. In this investigation a daily fractionated radiation of the snout was partly combined with lovastatin applications. In addition some mice were treated with lovastatin only. For this research mice of the line C3H/Neu were used. Radiation was performed with 5 x 3Gy over two weeks. Lovastatin was used at an oral dose of 16mg/kg. The matter of the research was - next to general histological characterisation - the immunohistochemical exposure of iNOS, NT and CD105 in the epithelial layer of the undersurface of the tongue and in the subepithelial tissue. The total cell count in the epithelium, the number of iNOS- and NT-positive nuclei in the germinal and the functional layer, as well as the intensity of the staining were evaluated. In the l. propria and l. muscularis CD105-, iNOS-, and NT-positive macrophages and other iNOS- and NT-positive immune cells were identified and the intensity of their staining was determined. Furthermore the homogeneity and intensity of the expression of iNOS in the endothelium were rated. The analysis contains the descriptive presentation of the value patterns of these parameters. Because of the small number of three test animals per day and group the statistical significance of the results was not determined. In consequence of radiotherapy the total cell count in the epithelium decreased to 65% of origin. Recovery was visible after termination of the treatment. With lovastatin medication only, the cell count increased to approximately 110%. While iNOS was present in the untreated as well as in the treated tissue, NT was hardly visible in the untreated one. The basic values were 22% of iNOS-positive nuclei in the germinal layer and 8% in the functional layer, and 2% and 1% for the NT-staining. Both, sole radiation and sole lovastatin therapy, showed 30-50% iNOS-positive nuclei in the germinal layer. With combined therapy for two weeks the values were partially lower, with lovastatin treatment from day 7 they were in the upper range. This group distribution was reflected in the functional layer, although altogether the quantity of positive nuclei was mostly under 30%. Due to radiation the number of NT-positive nuclei increased to 50-60% in both layers. With sole lovastatin therapy it was under 30%. Combined therapy over two weeks showed a tendency to the lower range too. With lovastatin treatment from day 7 the values were situated a little bit more in the upper range. The macrophage staining against CD105 revealed a reduction of macrophage cell count to approximately 50% of origin in all groups. Likewise the number of iNOS-positive macrophages decreased in all groups consistently to less than 80% of normal. The number of NT-positive macrophages was closer to the origin. In contrast to this, the other immunocompetent cells were increasingly iNOS-positive under treatment. Often values were high above the reference range. In comparison sole radiation therapy showed the lowest values with a maximum of 136% of normal. Regarding the staining against NT only sole lovastatin treatment showed values constantly above origin. Within this study the only evaluable staining for the endothelium was with iNOS-antibody. It showed a constant homogeneous staining in all groups. The intensity of the staining was moderate and increased in all treatment groups towards the end of the examination. Therefore it can be concluded that under treatment iNOS and NT were both highly expressed in the germinal layer. In the functional layer the expression of iNOS was reduced whereas the expression of NT remained about the same. So NT must have a longer half-life. In addition not all activated (CD105-positive) macrophages were also iNOS-positive and again iNOS did not produce NT in all cells. This was also proven by the distinct higher number of iNOS-positive immunocompetent cells in the ll. propriae and musculares. Therefore the biochemical processes, because of which lovastatin leads to the reduction of the radiogenic mucositis enoralis, remain to be investigated. During the present investigation there was no distinct hint for a correlation with the iNOS-NT-pathway.:Abkürzungsverzeichnis VIII 1 Einleitung 1 2 Literaturübersicht 3 2.1 Bedeutung von Tumorerkrankungen bei Mensch und Tier 3 2.2 Kopf-Hals-Tumoren 4 2.2.1 Tumorvorkommen beim Menschen 4 2.2.2 Tumorvorkommen bei Hund und Katze 4 2.2.3 Symptome beim Kleintier 5 2.2.4 Behandlungsmethoden 5 2.2.4.1 Chirurgie 5 2.2.4.2 Chemotherapie 5 2.2.4.3 Radiotherapie 6 2.2.4.4 Radiochemotherapie 7 2.2.5 Nebenwirkungen der Tumorbehandlung 7 2.2.5.1 Nebenwirkungen der Chemotherapie 7 2.2.5.2 Nebenwirkungen der Radiotherapie 8 2.3 Mucositis enoralis 8 2.3.1 Aufbau von Zunge und Zungenepithel 8 2.3.2 Pathogenese und zeitlicher Verlauf der radiogenen oralen Mukositis 10 2.3.2.1 Stadien der Mukositis und klinisches Erscheinungsbild 10 2.3.2.2 Reaktionskette der Strahlenwirkung 11 2.3.3 Einteilung des Schweregrades der Mukositis 12 2.3.3.1 Einteilung für die Humanmedizin 12 2.3.3.2 Einteilung für die Veterinärmedizin 13 2.3.4 Aktuelle Herangehensweise an die radiogene orale Mukositis 13 2.4 Lovastatin 14 2.4.1 Struktur und Anwendung 14 2.4.2 Weitere Wirkmechanismen von Statinen 14 2.4.2.1 Die apoptotische Wirkung der Statine 15 2.4.3 Eigenschaften im Tiereinsatz 15 2.5 Induzierbare Stickstoffmonoxid-Synthase und Nitrotyrosin 16 2.5.1 Die NOS und Nitrotyrosinbildung 16 2.5.2 Vorkommen von iNOS und Nitrotyrosin 17 3 Zielstellung der Arbeit 19 4 Material und Methoden 20 4.1 Versuchstiere 20 4.2 Perkutane Schnauzenbestrahlung 20 4.3 Applikation von Lovastatin 22 4.4 Versuchsprotokoll 22 4.5 Histologische Aufbereitung 23 4.5.1 Antikörper 23 4.5.1.1 Induzierbare Stickstoffmonoxid-Synthase (iNOS) 23 4.5.1.2 Nitrotyrosin 23 4.5.1.3 CD105 ... 23 4.5.1.4 Kontroll-Antikörper 23 4.5.2 Färbeprotokolle 24 4.5.2.1 iNOS und CD105 24 4.5.2.2 Nitrotyrosin 26 4.5.2.3 Optimierung der Konzentration der primären Antikörper 27 4.5.3 Histologische Auswertung 29 4.5.3.1 Epithel .. 29 4.5.3.2 L. propria und L. muscularis 30 4.5.3.3 Endothel 31 4.6 Analyse 31 5 Ergebnisse 32 5.1 Zellzahlen im Epithel 32 5.1.1 Kontrollgruppe 32 5.1.2 Alleinige Bestrahlung 32 5.1.3 Alleinige Lovastatinbehandlung 33 5.1.4 Bestrahlung und Lovastatingabe von Tag 0 bis 14 34 5.1.5 Bestrahlung und Lovastatingabe von Tag 7 bis 14 34 5.2 Expression von iNOS 36 5.2.1 Kontrollgruppe 36 5.2.2 Alleinige Bestrahlung 36 5.2.3 Alleinige Lovastatingabe 38 5.2.4 Bestrahlung und Lovastatingabe von Tag 0 bis 14 41 5.2.5 Bestrahlung und Lovastatingabe von Tag 7 bis 14 43 5.3 Expression von Nitrotyrosin 45 5.3.1 Kontrollgruppe 45 5.3.2 Alleinige Bestrahlung 45 5.3.3 Alleinige Lovastatinbehandlung 47 5.3.4 Bestrahlung und Lovastatingabe von Tag 0 bis 14 49 5.3.5 Bestrahlung und Lovastatingabe von Tag 7 bis 14 51 5.4 Expression von CD105 54 5.4.1 Alleinige Bestrahlung 54 5.4.2 Alleinige Lovastatinbehandlung 54 5.4.3 Bestrahlung und Lovastatingabe von Tag 0 bis 14 55 5.4.4 Bestrahlung und Lovastatingabe von Tag 7 bis 14 55 6 Diskussion 57 6.1 Klinischer Hintergrund 57 6.2 Tiermodelle für die radiogene orale Mukositis 58 6.2.1 Maus 58 6.2.2 Ratte 58 6.2.3 Hamster 58 6.3 Eigenschaften des unbehandelten Zungengewebes 59 6.3.1 Epithel der Zungenunterseite 59 6.3.1.1 Zellzahl . .59 6.3.1.2 Nachweis von iNOS 59 6.3.1.3 Nachweis von Nitrotyrosin 60 6.3.2 Immunzellen in der L. propria und L. muscularis 60 6.3.2.1 Nachweis von iNOS 60 6.3.2.2 Nachweis von Nitrotyrosin 60 6.3.2.3 Nachweis von CD105 60 6.3.3 Endothelien der L. propria und L. muscularis 60 6.4 Veränderungen bei konventioneller fraktionierter Bestrahlung 61 6.4.1 Epithel der Zungenunterseite 61 6.4.1.1 Zellzahl . 61 6.4.1.2 Nachweis von iNOS 61 6.4.1.3 Nachweis von Nitrotyrosin 62 6.4.2 Immunzellen in der L. propria und L. muscularis 62 6.4.2.1 Nachweis von iNOS 62 6.4.2.2 Nachweis von Nitrotyrosin 62 6.4.2.3 Nachweis von CD105 63 6.4.3 Endothelien der L. propria und L. muscularis 63 6.5 Veränderungen bei alleiniger Lovastatinbehandlung 63 6.5.1 Epithel der Zungenunterseite 63 6.5.1.1 Zellzahl . 63 6.5.1.2 Nachweis von iNOS 63 6.5.1.3 Nachweis von Nitrotyrosin 64 6.5.2 Immunzellen in der L. propria und L. muscularis 64 6.5.2.1 Nachweis von iNOS 64 6.5.2.2 Nachweis von Nitrotyrosin 64 6.5.2.3 Nachweis von CD105 64 6.5.3 Endothelien der L. propria und L. muscularis 65 6.6 Veränderungen bei fraktionierter Bestrahlung mit zusätzlicher Lovastatinbehandlung über 2 Wochen 65 6.6.1 Epithel der Zungenunterseite 65 6.6.1.1 Zellzahl . 65 6.6.1.2 Nachweis von iNOS 65 6.6.1.3 Nachweis von Nitrotyrosin 66 6.6.2 Immunzellen in den L. propria und L. muscularis 66 6.6.2.1 Nachweis von iNOS 66 6.6.2.2 Nachweis von Nitrotyrosin 67 6.6.2.3 Nachweis von CD105 67 6.6.3 Endothelien der L. propria und L. muscularis 67 6.7 Veränderungen bei fraktionierter Bestrahlung mit zusätzlicher Lovastatinbehandlung ab Tag 7 68 6.7.1 Epithel der Zungenunterseite 68 6.7.1.1 Zellzahl . 68 6.7.1.2 Nachweis von iNOS 68 6.7.1.3 Nachweis von Nitrotyrosin 68 6.7.2 Immunzellen in der L. propria und L. muscularis 69 6.7.2.1 Nachweis von iNOS 69 6.7.2.2 Nachweis von Nitrotyrosin 69 6.7.2.3 Nachweis von CD105 69 6.7.3 Endothelien der L. propria und L. muscularis 70 6.8 Zusammenfassende Einschätzung der Ergebnisse 70 7 Ausblick 72 8 Zusammenfassung 73 9 Summary 75 10 Abbildungsverzeichnis 77 11 Tabellenverzeichnis 80 12 Literatur 81 13 Anhang 92 14 Danksagung 100

<p>Akrilamid&nbsp; je toksična hemijska supst anca koja je već dugi niz godina prisutna u životnoj sredini,&nbsp; jer se kao važan monomer koristi u različite industrijske i laboratorijske svrhe. U poslednjih petnaest godina, akrilamid je postao posebno zanimljiv za &scaron;ire naučne krugove jer&nbsp; se pokazalo da&nbsp; se&nbsp; nalazi&nbsp; i u&nbsp; hrani&nbsp; biljnog porekla, posebno hrani bogatoj skrobom, koja se priprema pečenjem ili prženjem na temperaturama vi&scaron;im od 120&deg;C.&nbsp; Do sada ustanovljeni negativni zdravstveni efekti akrilamida su veoma raznovrsni i mogu biti rezultat delovanja samog&nbsp; akrilamida ili delovanja njegovog metabolita glicidamida koji nastaje&nbsp; in vivo&nbsp; kada se jedan deo molekula akrilamida metaboli&scaron;e oksigenacijom dvostruke veze pomoću enzima citohrom P450 2E1 (CYP2E1). Akrilamid je supstanca koja ima dokazan negativan efekat&nbsp; na organske sisteme kod ljudi i životinja, i koja je svrstana u moguće humane karcinogene. Negativan efekat akrilamida na egzokrini pankreas je poznat, ali o mogućim efektima akrilamida na endokrini pankreas se i dalje veoma malo zna. Ima puno dokaza koji&nbsp; ukazuju na to da akrilamid ima citotoksični efekat koji se&nbsp; manifestuje kroz uticaj na redoks-status ćelija i dovodi do promena u vrednostima biomarkera oksidativnog i nitrozativnog stresa, kao i u aktivnosti antioksidativnih enzima. Pankreas&nbsp; je&nbsp; jedan od ciljnih&nbsp; organa za delovanje akrilamida te je&nbsp; glavni predmet istraživanja&nbsp; doktorske teze&nbsp; bio proučavanje potencijalnog efekta akrilamida na endokrini pankreas pacova.&nbsp; Ispitivanje je vr&scaron;eno na 3&nbsp; eksperimentalne grupe&nbsp; juvenilnih&nbsp; mužjaka pacova soja Wistar,&nbsp; od kojih je&nbsp; jedna grupa bila kontrolna, dok su dve bile tretirane&nbsp; sa akrilamidom u dozama od 25 mg/kg tm i 50 mg/kg tm,&nbsp; 5 dana nedeljno,&nbsp; tokom 3 nedelje. Po isteku tretmana,&nbsp; nakon dekapitacije, kompletno tkivo pankreasa&nbsp; je&nbsp; fiksirano u 10% rastvoru formalina&nbsp; tokom&nbsp; 24&nbsp; h i obrađeno prema&nbsp; standardnoj proceduri za kalupljenje u parafinu.&nbsp; Parafinski kalupi su sečeni na serijske preseke debljine 5 &micro;m, nakon čega su bojeni&nbsp; histohemijskom i imunohistohemijskim metodama.&nbsp; Kod eksperimentalnih grupa posmatrane&nbsp; su&nbsp; histolo&scaron;ke promene na endokrinom pankreasu, sa akcentom na &alpha;-&nbsp; i &beta;-ćelije.&nbsp; Takođe, posmatrana je&nbsp; i&nbsp; ekspresija&nbsp; hormona insulina i glukagona, enzima inducibilne azot -oksi d&nbsp; sintetaze (iNOS) i&nbsp; CYP2E1,&nbsp; kao&nbsp; i ekspresija&nbsp;&nbsp; antioksidativnih enzima&nbsp; katalaza&nbsp; (CAT) i superoksid dismut aza 1 i 2&nbsp; (SOD1 i SOD2)&nbsp; u ćelijama Langerhansovih ostrvaca. Potencijalna promena u funkcionalnosti &beta;-ćelija je ispitana i kroz analizu nivoa glukoze u serumu pacova tretiranih sa akrilamidom.<br />Budući da &beta;-ćelije čine 80% ćelija koje grade Langerhansova ostrvca pankreasa,&nbsp; pored in vivo&nbsp; eksperimenata, ispitana&nbsp; je&nbsp; i toksičnost akrilamida na&nbsp; Rin-5F ćelijsku liniju insulinoma &beta;-ćelija pacova u in vitro uslovima. Glavni cilj in vitro&nbsp; istraživanja je bio&nbsp; da se&nbsp; ispita&nbsp; uticaj&nbsp; rastućih&nbsp; koncentracija akrilamida na preživljavanje tretiranih&nbsp; Rin-5F&nbsp; ćelija, ali i efekat IC₅₀&nbsp; koncentracije ove supstance primenjene&nbsp; tokom&nbsp; različitih vremenskih intervala&nbsp; (0,5, 1, 3, 6, 12 i 24 h)&nbsp; na pojavu oksidativnog i nitrozativnog stresa. Redoks-status Rin-5F ćelija tretiranih&nbsp; sa akrilamidom je ispitan preko analize prisustva biomarkera oksidativnog i nitrozativnog stresa, akrivnosti CAT i ukupne SOD, kao i promene u ekspresiji gena za CAT, SOD1, SOD2&nbsp;&nbsp; i iNOS.&nbsp; Pored toga, analiziran je i efekat istog tretmana na&nbsp; ekspresiju gena za insulin, CYP2E1, Bax i Bcl-2. U okviru teze je pokazano da akrilamid ne dovodi do&nbsp; značajnih promena u histolo&scaron;koj građi, dijametru i broju Langerhansovih ostrvaca&nbsp; kod&nbsp; tretiranih životinja.&nbsp; Primena stereolo&scaron;kih metoda&nbsp; je&nbsp; ukazala&nbsp; na mikrostrukturne promene na&nbsp; endokrinom pankreasu na nivou &alpha;-&nbsp; i &beta;-ćelija. U ovoj tezi je po prvi put pokazano da tretman akrilamidom negativno utiče na broj i povr&scaron;inu &beta;-ćelija pankreasa.&nbsp; U tezi je, takođe,&nbsp; pokazan&nbsp; značajan dozno-zavisni pad u prisustvu insulina u &beta;-ćelijama&nbsp;&nbsp; pankreasa. Uprkos&nbsp; tome, kod&nbsp; akrilamidom tretiranih&nbsp; životinja&nbsp; nije konstatovana&nbsp; promena&nbsp; u&nbsp; koncentraciji serumske glukoze.&nbsp; U&nbsp; ovoj tezi je pokazano da tretman akrilamidom dovodi do&nbsp;&nbsp; statistički značajnog porasta&nbsp; u broju &alpha;-ćelija&nbsp; kod životinja koje su primale nižu dozu tretmana, dok se&nbsp; broj &alpha;-ćelija&nbsp; kod životinja koje su primale vi&scaron;u dozu tretmana&nbsp; ne razlikuje značajno od kontrole.&nbsp; Tretman akrilamidom je doveo do značajnog&nbsp; porasta u količini&nbsp;&nbsp; prisutnog glukagona&nbsp; u &alpha;-ćelijama pankreasa.<br />Tretman akrilamidom nije doveo do značajne promene u ekspresiji CAT, SOD1 i SOD2 u ćelijama Langerhansovih ostrvaca.&nbsp; Kod&nbsp; tretiranih životinja&nbsp; do&scaron;lo do značajnog dozno-zavisnog porasta&nbsp; u ekspresiji&nbsp; enzima iNOS,&nbsp; dok je ekspresija&nbsp; CYP2E1 značajno dozno-zavisno opala&nbsp; nakon tretmana. U&nbsp; tezi je pokazano da tretman akrilamidom negativno utiče na vijabilnost Rin-5F ćelija, i utvrđeno je da IC50&nbsp; koncentracija akrilamida za Rin-5F ćelije iznosi 10 mM.&nbsp; Rezultati teze pokazuju da tretman akrilamidom u IC₅₀&nbsp; koncentraciji u Rin-5F ćelijskoj liniji značajno povećava nivo malondialdehida (MDA) nakon tretmana u trajanju od 1, 12 i 24 h.&nbsp; Isti tretman&nbsp; značajno smanjuje nivo redukovanog GSH nakon tretmana od 1, 3, 6, 12 i<br />24 h, kao i nivo slobodnih&nbsp; &ndash;SH grupa nakon tretmana od 3 i 6 h. Tretman akrilamidom u IC_50&nbsp; koncentraciji signifikantno pojačava aktivnost CAT nakon tretmana od 1 h, dok tretman u trajanju od 12 h značajno smanjuje aktivnost ovog enzima. Ovaj tretman smanjuje aktivnost SOD nakon 1, 12 i 24 h, dok&nbsp; tretman u trajanju od 6 h značajno pojačava aktivnost enzima SOD.&nbsp; U tezi je, takođe, pokazan i veoma značajan porast&nbsp; u nivou prisutnih nitrita,&nbsp; koji&nbsp; je direktno proporcionalan&nbsp; sa nivoom azot-oksida i nivoom akivnosti enzima iNOS.&nbsp; Ovaj&nbsp; nalaz ukazuje na potencijalnu pojavu nitrozati vnog stresa u akrilamidom-tretiranim Rin-5F ćelijama.&nbsp; U&nbsp; tezi je po prvi put pokazano da tretman&nbsp; akrilamidom dovodi do&nbsp; značajnih&nbsp; varijacija&nbsp; u transkripciji gena za iNOS, SOD1, SOD2,&nbsp; CAT,&nbsp; CYP2E1,&nbsp; Bax i Bcl-2 u tretiranim Rin-5F ćelijama, dok isti tretman ne dovodi do&nbsp; promene nivoa&nbsp; transkripcije gena za insulin.&nbsp; Tretman akrilamidom u koncentraciji od 10<br />mM tokom rastućih vremenskih perioda dovodi do porasta u relativnoj količini iRNK<br />gena za iNOS u svim tačkama tretmana, do porasta&nbsp; nivoa&nbsp; iRNK za SOD1 i SOD2 nakon tretmana od 12 i 24 h, kao i do porasta&nbsp; količine&nbsp; iRNK za CAT nakon tretmana od 3 h.&nbsp; U&nbsp; tezi je pokazano&nbsp; i&nbsp; da akrilamid&nbsp; izaziva&nbsp; promene&nbsp; u sintezi&nbsp; iRNK&nbsp; za enzim&nbsp; CYP2E1&nbsp; koji je&nbsp; posebno značajan u kontekstu detoksikacije ove toksične supstance.&nbsp; Porast u transkripciji gena za&nbsp; CYP2E1&nbsp; je uočen&nbsp; nakon tretmana u trajanju od 0,5 i 1 h, dok je&nbsp; do smanjenja transkripcije&nbsp; do&scaron;lo&nbsp; nakon tretmana od 12&nbsp; i 24&nbsp; h.&nbsp; Tretman akrilamidom u koncentraciji od&nbsp; 10 mM tokom rastućih vremenskih perioda dovodi do porasta u relativnoj količini iRNK&nbsp; gena za Bax u svim tačkama tretmana, i do porasta u transkripciji gena za Bcl-2 nakon tretmana od 0,5, 1 i 3 h.<br />Sumirajući&nbsp; sve&nbsp; rezultate&nbsp; ove teze,&nbsp; moze se zaključiti&nbsp; da je endokrini pankreas&nbsp; jedno od&nbsp; ciljnih tkiva, na koje akrilamid ostvaruje vi&scaron;estruki negativni uticaj.</p> / <p>Acrylamide is a toxic chemical used as an important monomer for various industrial and laboratory purposes, which makes it highly present in the environment. In the last fifteen years, acrylamide has become especially interesting for wider scientific circles when it was found in staple foodstuff rich in starch, prepared at temperatures higher than 120&deg;C. The established negative health effects of acrylamide are very diverse and can be the result of the acrylamide action itself or the action of its metabolite glycidamide that occurs in vivo, when acrylamide molecule is metabolized via oxygenation of the double bond by the cytochrome P450 2E1 (CYP2E1). Acrylamide is a substance with a proven adverse effect on humans and animals, and it is classified as a possible human carcinogen. The negative effect of acrylamide on the exocrine pancreas has already been recognized, but the possible effects of acrylamide&nbsp; on endocrine pancreas are still mostly undetermined. There is a significant amount of evidence to suggest that acrylamide exerts a cytotoxic effect which manifests through the changes in level of oxidative and nitrosative stress biomarkers, as well as in the activity of antioxidant enzymes. Since, pancreas is one of the target organs for acrylamide, the main subject of doctoral thesis was to investigate the potential effect of acrylamide on the rat endocrine pancreas. The investigation was conducted on 3 experimental groups of juvenile male Wistar rats, of which one group was the control group, while two groups were treated with acrylamide at doses of 25 mg/kg bw and 50 mg/kg bw, 5 days a week, during 3 weeks. After termination of the treatment, decapitation was performed, and the complete pancreatic tissue was fixed in a 10% formalin solution for 24 h and treated according to the standard paraffin embedding procedure. Paraffin molds were cut into 5 &mu;m thick serial sections, after which they were stained with histochemical and immunohistochemical methods. Histological changes ofthe endocrine pancreas, with the emphasis on &alpha;- and &beta;-cells, were examined in three experimental groups of rats. In addition, the expression of insulin and glucagon hormone, the inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and CYP2E1 enzymes, and the expression of antioxidative enzymes catalase (CAT) and superoxide dismutases 1 and 2&nbsp; (SOD1 and SOD2) in the islets of Langerhans were also investigated. A potential change in the functionality of &beta;-cells was also examined by analyzing glucose level in the serum of rats treated with acrylamide. In pancreatic islets of Langerhans the majority of cells (&gt;80%) are &beta;-cells. Therefore, in addition to in vivo experiments, the toxicity of acrylamide was examined in vitro on rat insulinoma Rin-5F cell line.The main goal of in vitro research was to investigate the impact of increasing acrylamide concentrations on the viability of treated Rin-5F cells, and also to examine whether IC50 concentration of this substance, applied at different intervals of time (0.5, 1, 3, 6, 12 and 24 h), induce oxidative and nitrosative stress. Redox-status of Rin-5F cells treated with acrylamide was examined by analyzing oxidative and nitrosative stress biomarkers, CAT and total SOD activity, as well as changes in the expression of the CAT, SOD1, SOD2 and iNOS. In addition, the effect of the same treatment on the transcription of the insulin, CYP2E1, Bax and Bcl-2 gene was analyzed.The results of the thesis showed that acrylamide treatment does not lead to significant changes in the histological structure, diameter and number of islets of Langerhans of treated animals. Application of stereological methods indicated microstructural changes of &alpha;- and &beta;-cells ofendocrine pancreas. It has been shown for the first time that treatment with acrylamide negatively affects the number and surface area of pancreatic &beta;-cells. In addition, a significant dose-dependent decline in the amount of insulin in pancreatic &beta;-cells was also demonstrated. However, no change in serum glucose level was observed in treated animals. Acrylamide treatment led to a statistically significant increase in the number of &alpha;-cells in animals receiving a lower dose of treatment, while the number of &alpha;-cells in animals receiving a higher dose of treatment did not differ significantly from the control. Treatment with acrylamide led to a significant increase in the amount of the glucagon in &alpha;-cells. Treatment with acrylamide did not cause a significant change in the expression of CAT, SOD1 and SOD2 in islets of Langerhans. However, there was a significant dosedependent increase in the&nbsp; expression of iNOS enzyme, whereas expression of CYP2E1 significantly decreased in dose-dependent manner in treated animals. Results of the thesis showed that acrylamide exerts a negative effect on the viability of Rin-5F cell line. It has been established that the IC50 concentration of acrylamide for the Rin-5F cell line is 10 mM. The results of the thesis indicate that treatment of Rin-5F cell line with IC50 concentration of acrylamide for 1, 12, and 24 h significantly increased the level of malondialdehyde (MDA). Exposure to acrylamide for 1, 3, 6, 12 and 24 h significantly decreased the level of reduced GSH, while the level of free -SH groups was reduced after 3 and 6 h of acrylamide treatments. Treatment with IC50 concentration of acrylamide significantly enhanced CAT activity after 1 h of acrylamide exposure, while 12 h exposure significantly reduced the activity of this enzyme. Application of acrylamide reduced SOD activity after 1, 12, and 24 h exposure, while 6 h exposure significantly increased the activity of SOD enzymes. Results of the thesis also showed a very significant increase of the nitrite level, which is directly proportional to the level of nitrogen oxide (NO) and the level of the iNOS activity. This finding points to the potential occurrence of nitrosative stress in acrylamide-treated Rin-5F cells. It has been shown for the first time that acrylamide treatment leads to significant variations in transcription of iNOS, SOD1, SOD2, CAT, CYP2E1, Bax and Bcl-2 genes in treated Rin-5F cells, while the same treatment does not affect transcription of the insulin gene. Treatment with acrylamide at a concentration of 10 mM for increasing periods of time leads to an increase in the relative amount of the iNOS gene iRNA at all treatment points. Twelve and and 24 h of acrylamide exposure increased the transcription of the SOD1 and SOD2 genes. Transcription of CAT gene was increased after 3 h&nbsp; ofacrylamide exposure. Furthermore, it has been shown that acrylamide treatment leads to variations in the mRNA synthesis of CYP2E1 gene, which is particularly significant in the context of detoxification of this toxic substance. An increase in the transcription ofthe CYP2E1&nbsp; gene was observed after 0.5 and 1 h of acrylamide exposure, while the reduction of&nbsp; transcription occurred after 12 and 24 h of acrylamide exposure. The treatment with 10 mM acrylamide has led to an increase of the transcription of the Bax gene at all treatment points, and also to an increase of transcription of the Bcl-2 gene after of 0.5, 1, and 3 h of acrylamide exposure. Summarizing all the results of this thesis, it can be concluded that the endocrine pancreas&nbsp; is one of the target tissues of acrylamide, to which this substance exerts a multiple adverse effects.</p>

Mémoire numérisé par la Direction des bibliothèques de l'Université de Montréal.

No description available.

Existem evidências de que o estresse exerce papel importante na piora dos sintomas da asma, mas os exatos mecanismos que os interligam ainda não estão elucidados, principalmente no parênquima distal. Recentemente tem sido enfatizada a importância do parênquima pulmonar na modulação das alterações funcionais, inflamatórias e de remodelamento que caracterizam os quadros asmáticos. Cabe ressaltar, que tais alterações tem sido observadas tanto em humanos quanto em modelos de inflamação pulmonar alérgica crônica. Objetivos: Nossos objetivos foram avaliar se a mecânica de tecido pulmonar periférico, a ativação de vias de estresse oxidativo, a expressão celular de citocinas, o recrutamento eosinofílico e o processo de remodelamento da matriz extracelular podem ser modulados pelo estresse físico repetido, induzido pela natação forçada, em cobaias com inflamação alérgica crônica pulmonar. Métodos: Os animais foram expostos a sete inalações com doses crescentes de ovoalbumina (1~5mg/ml) ou soro fisiológico por quatro semanas (grupos OVA e SAL). Após 24 horas da quarta inalação os animais foram submetidos ao protocolo de natação forçada, considerado um modelo de indução de estresse gerado por esforço pela sobrevivência com dificuldade de escapar (grupos SAL-E e OVA-E). Os animais foram expostos ao protocolo de estresse por dois períodos de cinco dias, intercalados por dois dias após os cinco primeiros dias. Após 72 horas da sétima inalação os animais foram anestesiados, exsanguinados e fatias de tecido pulmonar periférico foram retiradas e submetidas à avaliação de mecânica oscilatória. Foram avaliadas a resistência (Rt), a elastância (Et) e a histerisividade (h) em condições basais e após desafio com ovoalbumina e acetilcolina. Os resultados de Rt e Et foram expressos em % de aumento em relação aos valores basais. As fatias de tecido pulmonar periférico foram então submetidas à avaliação histopatológica e imunohistoquímica para quantificação do número de eosinófilos, do conteúdo de colágeno, actina e de 8-iso-PGF2a e do número de células positivas para IL-2, IL-4, IL-5, IL-13, IFN-g e iNOS. As duas glândulas adrenais foram retiradas, pesadas e seu peso foi corrigido pelo peso total do animal. Os níveis séricos de catecolaminas (adrenalina, noradrenalina e dopamina) e do cortisol também foram obtidos. Resultados: Houve aumento na %Rt, %Et tanto após o desafio antigênico bem como após o contato com o agonista constritor, no número de eosinófilos, no conteúdo de 8-iso-PGF2a, de fibras colágenas e de actina, no número de células positivas para IL-4, IL-5, IL-13 e iNOS no septo alveolar dos animais expostos à ovoalbumina (grupos OVA e OVA-E) quando comparados aos animais expostos ao soro fisiológico (grupos SAL, p<0,05 para todas as comparações). As cobaias sensibilizadas e submetidas ao protocolo de estresse (grupo OVA-E) apresentaram aumento na %Rt e %Et após o desafio antigênico quando comparadas ao grupo OVA (p<0,05). Em relação à avaliação de mecânica pulmonar periférica após o desafio com acetilcolina, observamos aumento apenas na %Et no grupo OVA-E comparativamente ao grupo OVA (p<0,05). Houve aumento no numero de células IL-4 positivas, no conteúdo de 8-iso-PGF2a e de actina nos animais OVA-E comparativamente aos animais do grupo OVA (p<0,05). Considerando o grupo SAL-E houve aumento da %Rt e %Et após desafio com o agonista constritor, no número de células positivas para iNOS, IFN-g, IL-2, IL-5 e IL-13, bem como no conteúdo de 8-iso-PGF2a comparativamente ao grupo SAL (p<0,05). Finalmente, o peso relativo das adrenais e os níveis de cortisol sérico foram maiores nos grupos submetidos ao estresse físico (grupos SAL-E e OVA-E) quando comparados aos grupos não estressados (grupos SAL e OVA, p<0,004). Não houve diferença nos níveis séricos das catecolaminas entre os quatro grupos experimentais. Conclusões: A natação forçada repetida como modelo de estresse foi capaz de causar alterações funcionais como a constrição do parênquima pulmonar bem como aumento da expressão de citocinas e da produção de 8-iso-PGF2a, marcador da ativação de vias do estresse oxidativo. Além disso, neste modelo de inflamação crônica pulmonar, a exposição repetida à natação forçada foi capaz de potencializar a constrição do parênquima pulmonar. Esta alteração funcional associou-se ao aumento do conteúdo de actina e de 8-iso-PGF2a e do número de células IL-4 positivas no septo alveolar. Estes resultados sugerem que tanto a ativação inflamatória quanto o estresse oxidativo estão envolvidos na modulação da resposta inflamatória crônica pulmonar pelo estresse físico repetido. / There are evidences showing that stress can worsen asthma symptoms, but the exact mechanisms that link them are not clarified, especially in the distal lung parenchyma. Recently, the importance of the lung parenchyma has been emphasized in the modulations of the functional alterations, inflammatory and remodeling that characterizes asthma. These alterations have been observed in humans as well as experimental models of chronic allergic pulmonary inflammation. Objectives: Our goals were to evaluate if lung tissue mechanics, activation of oxidative stress pathways, cytokines cellular expressions, eosinophil recruitment and the remodeling process of the extracellular matrix can be modulated by repeated physical stress, induced by forced swimming, in guinea pigs with chronic allergic pulmonary inflammation. Methods: Animals were exposed to seven inhalations with ovalbumin increased doses (1~5mg/ml) or saline solution during four weeks (OVA and SAL groups). Twenty-four hours after the fourth inhalation animals were submitted to forced swimming protocol, that is a type of an unavoidable stress that induces an effort for survival with an escape deficit (SAL-E and OVA-E groups). Animals were exposed to the stress protocol for two periods of five days, intercalated by two days. Seventy-two hours after the seventh inhalation animals were anesthetized, lung strips were removed and submitted to oscillatory mechanic evaluation. Resistance (Rt), elastance (Et) and hysteresivity were evaluated at base line and after OVA and acetylcholine challenge in bath. Rt and Et results were expressed as a % of baseline values. The pulmonary tissue strips were then submitted to histological and Immunohistochemistry analysis, to quantify the number of eosinophils, collagen, actin, 8-iso-PGF2a content and the number of positive cells for IL-2, IL-4, IL-5, IL-13, IFN-g and iNOS. Both adrenal glands were removed and weighted. The weight of the adrenal glands was corrected by the animals total weight. The serum levels of catecholamine (epinephrine, norepinephrine and dopamine) and cortisol were also obtained. Results: There was an increase in Rt%, Et% after the antigenic challenge as well as after the acetylcholine challenge, in the number of eosinophils, 8-iso-PGF2a content, collagen and actin fibers and in the number of IL-4, IL-5, IL-13 and iNOS positive cells in the alveolar septum of the animals exposed to ovalbumin (OVA and OVA-E groups) when compared to the animals exposed to saline solution (SAL, p<0.05 for all comparisons). The sensitized guinea pigs submitted to the stress protocol (OVA-E group) presented an increase in Rt% and Et% after the OVA challenge when compared to the OVA group (p<0.05). Due to the acetylcholine challenge, we observed an increase only in the Et% in OVA-E group compared the OVA group (p<0.05). There was an increase in the IL-4 positive cells, in the 8-iso-PGF2a and actin content in OVA-E animals compared to OVA group (p<0.05). Considering the SAL-E group there was an increase in Rt% and Et% after acetylcholine challenge, in the number of iNOS, IFN-g, IL-2, IL-5, and IL-13 positive cells, as well as in the 8-iso-PGF2a content compared to SAL group (p<0.05). Finally, the relative adrenal weight and the serum cortisol levels were greater in the groups submitted to physical stress (SAL-E e OVA-E groups) when compared to the non-stressed groups (SAL and OVA groups, p<0.05). There was no difference in the catecholamine serum levels among the four experimental groups. Conclusion: The repeated forced swimming, as a stress model was capable of causing functional alterations like lung tissue constriction and increase in cytokines expression and 8-iso-PGF2a production. Besides that, in this chronic pulmonary inflammation, the repeated exposure to forced swimming was capable of empowering lung tissue constriction. This functional alteration was associated with an augmentation in actin and 8-iso-PGF2a content and in the number of IL-4 positive cells in the alveolar septum. These results suggest that activation of inflammatory and oxidative stress pathways were involved in the modulation of stress responses in this animal model of chronic lung inflammation.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-04-28T20:15:26Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 2007-Tiago Marques dos Santos.pdf: 2575604 bytes, checksum: e88af70c2740e40f39ed1fb8bd423ec5 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2007-02-26 / Coordena??o de Aperfei?oamento de Pessoal de N?vel Superior / This work aimed to evaluate gastrointestinal and systemic disturbances, and mucosa and gut contents of gastrointestinal tract of horses subjected to overload carbohydrate. Eight crossbreed mature horses were used with body weight (BW) average of 364kg, geldings, adapted to diet composed by grass hay and concentrate, in a 60:40 proportion. A complete randomized design was used with horses allocated in three treatments. Treatment I: (Control) (n=2) horses were slaughtered without overload carbohydrate; Treatment II (n=3) and III (n=3), horses subjected to overload carbohydrate, with gastric infusion of 17.6 g starch/kg BW, and slaughtered after 24 and 36 hours, respectively. Horses were subjected to clinical, hematological and fecal evaluations before the overload and 2, 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 28, 32 and 36 hours after overload. Four hours after overload horses became depressed and keeping until the end of evaluation, and one horse presented lameness 36 hours after overload. Any difference (P>0.05) were observed in heart rate, respiratory rate, body temperature and hoof temperature. Increase in packed cell volume and plasma protein concentration were observed 24 hours after overload, varying from 26.7 to 32.0% and 7.1 to 8.1 g/dL, respectively (P<0.05). Differences were observed (P<0.05) in plasmatic lactate concentration in zero, 20 and 28 hours after overload, with values of 0.7, 1.04 and 1.22 mmol/L, respectively. Plasma endotoxin concentration didn't cross 0.1000 EU/mL and may be not present. There were any difference (P>0.05) in fecal and digesta water content, however, fecal pH reduced along 36 hours post-overload (P <0.01), varying from 6.09 to 4.46. Content of large intestine in horses subjected to overload presented whitish-green color, milk aspect, with gas bubbles and acid odor. There weren t difference (P>0.05) in water content of feces and digesta, however, fecal pH reduced along 36 hours post-overload (P <0.01), varying from 6.09 to 4.46. Buffering capacity of ceco-colon digesta and feces were reduced in horses subjected to overload. Right dorsal colon, transverse colon and descendent colon were segments, except stomach, that presented lower pH values, varying from 4.49 to 4.56. Eosinophils infiltration were presented in mucosa and submucosa of all horses, however, only horses submitted to overload presented neutrophils and eosinophils leucocitoestase with neutrophils predominance restricted to large intestine. Tract gastrointestinal circulatory alterations observed were congestion, edema and lymphatic vessels dilatation, more evident in submucosa, with larger inflammatory cells infiltration in horses subjected to overload. Intestinal mucosa 36 hours after overload presented larger degree of imunorreactivity anti-myeloperoxidase, followed by horses evaluated at 24 hours after overload and control horses, varying from 2.7 to 4.0, 1.0 to 3.7 and 1.0 to 2.5, respectively. Overload carbohydrate in horses promoted intensive fermentation in ceco-colon, predisposing clinical disturbances, digesta alterations and mucosa and submucosa lesions at gastrointestinal tract of horses with light to moderate degree,36 hours after overload. / Este trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar as altera??es sist?micas, da mucosa e conte?do do trato gastrointestinal de eq?inos submetidos ? sobrecarga diet?tica com amido. Foram utilizados oito eq?inos adultos castrados, com peso vivo m?dio de 364 kg, adaptados a dieta composta por feno de Coastcross e concentrado, na propor??o de 60:40. Foi utilizado um delineamento experimental com tr?s tratamentos: Tratamento I (Controle) (n=2), eutan?sia dos animais sem sobrecarga com amido; Tratamentos II (n=3) e III (n=3), animais submetidos ? sobrecarga com amido, com infus?o g?strica de 17,6 g amido/kg de peso corporal e eutan?sia ap?s 24 e 36 horas, respectivamente. Os eq?inos foram submetidos a avalia??es cl?nicas, hematol?gicas e f?sico-qu?micas das fezes antes da sobrecarga e 2, 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 28, 32 e 36 horas p?s-sobrecarga. Os animais apresentaram-se ap?ticos quatro horas ap?s a sobrecarga permanecendo assim at? o final da avalia??o e apenas um animal apresentou claudica??o, 36 horas p?s-sobrecarga. N?o houve diferen?a (P>0,05) na freq??ncia card?aca, freq??ncia respirat?ria, temperatura corporal e temperatura dos cascos. Houve aumento (P<0,05) no volume globular e prote?na plasm?tica total, 24 horas p?s-sobrecarga, variando de 26,7 a 32,0% e de 7,1 e 8,1 g/dL, respectivamente. Houve diferen?a (P<0,05) na concentra??o plasm?tica de lactato no tempo zero, 20 e 28 horas p?s-sobrecarga, com valores de 0,7, 1,04 e 1,22 mmol/L, respectivamente. A concentra??o plasm?tica de endotoxinas n?o ultrapassou 0,1000 EU/mL, podendo estar at? mesmo ausente. O conte?do do intestino grosso nos eq?inos submetidos ? sobrecarga apresentou cor verde esbranqui?ada, aspecto leitoso, com bolhas de g?s e odor ?cido. N?o houve diferen?a (P>0,05) no teor de ?gua das fezes e do conte?do da digesta, no entanto, o pH fecal reduziu ao longo de 36 horas p?s-sobrecarga (P<0,01), variando de 6,09 a 4,46. Houve redu??o na capacidade de tamponamento das fezes nos eq?inos submetidos ? sobrecarga e, de forma similar, ocorreu no conte?do do ceco-c?lon. O c?lon dorsal direito, c?lon transverso e c?lon descendente foram os segmentos, com exce??o do est?mago, que apresentaram a digesta com menores valores de pH, variando de 4,49 a 4,56. ? histopatologia, a infiltra??o de eosin?filos esteve presente na mucosa e submucosa de todos os eq?inos, no entanto, somente em dois eq?inos submetidos ? sobrecarga, observou-se leucocitoestase de neutr?filos e eosin?filos, com predomin?ncia de neutr?filos no intestino grosso. As altera??es circulat?rias observadas no trato gastrointestinal foram congest?o, edema e dilata??o de vasos linf?ticos, sendo mais evidentes na submucosa, local de maior infiltra??o de c?lulas inflamat?rias nos eq?inos submetidos ? sobrecarga. A mucosa dos segmentos do trato gastrointestinal dos eq?inos eutanasiados 36 horas p?ssobrecarga apresentou maior grau de imunorreatividade anti-mieloperoxidase, seguido dos eq?inos avaliados 24 horas p?s-sobrecarga e dos eq?inos do tratamento controle, variando de 2,7 a 4,0, 1,0 a 3,7 e 1,0 a 2,5, respectivamente. A sobrecarga diet?tica com amido em eq?inos promove fermenta??o intensa no ceco-c?lon, predispondo ao aparecimento de dist?rbios cl?nicos, altera??es do conte?do da digesta e les?es de leve a moderada na mucosa e submucosa do trato gastrointestinal dos eq?inos, ap?s 36 horas da sobrecarga.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-04-28T20:18:33Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 2006 - Marcelo de Oliveira Henriques.pdf: 1418850 bytes, checksum: 6ccdf4d93022fbed75fdf435f7413052 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2006-10-25 / This study was conducted with the purpose to evaluate the clinical, laboratory and epidemiological aspects of naturally acquired Babesia equi infection in 178 horses handled in a semi-intensive system, property of the Academia Militar das Agulhas Negras Brazilian Army, situated in the city of Resende, in the Rio de Janeiro State. Babesia equi is a species of hemoparasite of elevated prevalence among equids in tropical regions, being hard to control, causing important economic losses because of the long periods of convalescence, decline of performance in the affected animals, expenses with medication and workers, besides the restrictions in transit of equines, either for hippic competitions or international commerce. In the Indirect Immunofluorescence Reaction, a prevalence of 85,96% (n=153) was verified, therefore the area can be considered endemic for Babesia equi and in enzootic stability. There was no significant difference in the age or sex of the seropositive animals. Laboratory parameters like packed cell volume, red blood cell count, platelet count, global and differential white blood cell counts, dosages of seric creatinine, albumin and total plasmatic proteins, all of which led to the conclusion that in the assymptomatic carrier state there is no hematologic or seric biochemical variations that could be attributed to the protozoal Babesia equi. / Este estudo foi conduzido com o intuito de avaliar achados cl?nicos, laboratoriais e epidemiol?gicos na infec??o natural de Babesia equi em 178 eq?inos mantidos em sistema semiintensivo de cria??o, de propriedade da Academia Militar das Agulhas Negras Ex?rcito Brasileiro, situada no munic?pio de Resende, Estado do Rio de Janeiro. Babesia equi ? uma esp?cie de hemoparasita de elevada preval?ncia entre eq??deos de ?reas tropicais, sendo de dif?cil controle, causando perdas econ?micas importantes, pelos longos per?odos de convalescen?a, queda de desempenho nos animais acometidos, gastos com medicamentos e m?o de obra, al?m de impor restri??es no tr?nsito de eq?inos, seja para competi??es h?picas ou com?rcio internacional. Na Rea??o de Imunofluoresc?ncia Indireta, foi verificada uma preval?ncia de 85,96% (n=153), podendo ser a ?rea considerada end?mica para Babesia equi e em estabilidade enzo?tica, n?o sendo observadas diferen?as significativas entre sexo e idade dos animais. Par?metros laboratoriais como volume globular, hematimetria, plaquetometria, leucometrias global e espec?fica, dosagens de creatinina s?rica, albumina e prote?nas plasm?ticas totais foram conduzidos, podendo-se concluir que no estado de portador assintom?tico n?o h? varia??o hematol?gica ou de bioqu?mica s?rica que possa ser creditada ao protozo?rio Babesia equi.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-04-28T20:18:34Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 2009 - Carlos Alexandre Paula Goncalves.pdf: 1454724 bytes, checksum: 032bda4d175200a7de693f3e18dc6e4d (MD5) Previous issue date: 2009-08-21 / The goal of this study was identify whether the number of apoptotic cells in horse s lamellar tissues after carbohydrate overload-induced of laminitis were affected by non-steroidal anti-inflammatory. The TUNEL assay and morphological cells changes were used to identify cells that were dying by apoptosis. There was no significant difference between groups. The apoptotic rate was not affected by non-steroidal anti-inflammatories used after developmental phase of laminitis. / O objetivo deste trabalho foi identificar se a administra??o de anti-inflamat?rios n?o esteroidais influenciava no ?ndice apopt?tico de c?lulas epiteliais do tecido lamelar de cavalos com laminite induzida por administra??o de amido. O tecido lamelar foi coletado por bi?psia, fixado e corado pela t?cnica de TUNEL, utilizando-se igualmente a morfologia celular para identifica??o das c?lulas que estivessem em diferentes est?gios de morte por apoptose. N?o houve diferen?a significativa no ?ndice apopt?tico entre os diferentes grupos. Os antiinflamat?rios empregados aplicados na fase de desenvolvimento da laminite n?o influenciaram significativamente os ?ndices apopt?ticos.