The issue of the Islamic headscarf has been in the centre of the political debate whether it fits into the Western culture or not. Several member-states in the European Union have issued laws and regulations that impose restrictions on wearing the Islamic headscarf in the public sphere. Even some EU courts have ruled such restrictions imposed by member-states. Recently, this issue has been discussed in the context of the occupational life. In a dispute before the European Court of Justice, the ban was considered as legitimate. In this research, I analyse the judgment from a socio-legal perspective and analyse the intersectional identity of Mrs. Achbita who is a party in the dispute, considering that she belongs to the social category of veiled working Muslim women.

This thesis analyses religious discrimination in employment, using an applied comparison of the law in the UK, France and Germany. To this end, the thesis first explores national church-state relations, establishing potential links to religious discrimination at work. The investigation then moves on to the standards set by the Council of Europe and the European Union, against which the law in the UK, France and Germany will be measured against. The final chapter brings together the findings in an overall comparison of the national law, with particular emphasis on the role of church-state relations and impact on religious minorities. The original contribution of this thesis to knowledge lies in the assessment of the topic in the context of three jurisdictions, its interconnectedness with the ECHR and EU frameworks, using the framework of church-state relations. The thesis reveals and explains similarities and differences between the law in the three jurisdictions, as well as the effects on employees practising their religion and underlying attitudes that formed the law. After identifying substantive neutrality as a promising characteristic of church-state models, it was set as a benchmark for assessment throughout the thesis. Themes emerging from the research reflect significant differences regarding religious discrimination in employment in the UK, France and Germany. Particularly striking is the arguably deliberate targeting of, and clearly detrimental impact on religious minorities by means of indirectly discriminating law in France and Germany, as well as some directly discriminating provisions that were enacted in the course of the German ‘headscarf debate’. It is suggested, accordingly, that stereotypical assumptions about ‘otherness’ have influenced legislation, as well as case law, using church-state relations to underscore the decisive arguments. Due to its largely hypothetical nature, the assessment of the domestic laws’ compatibility with European international and supranational legal frameworks result in a number of cautious predictions. Widespread compliance appears fairly likely in relation to the law in the UK, whereas French and German law can be challenged in several regards. Finally, this research contributes proposals aiming at effective solutions for a variety of religious discrimination scenarios pertinent in the UK, French and German work environments.

<p>Poslednjih decenija intenzivno se na univerzionalnom i regionalnim nivoima razvija pravo ljudskih prava, uključujući pravo na ravnopravnost i pravo na slobodu od diskriminacije. To je doprinelo napretku u ostvarivanju prava žena i rodne ravnopravnosti. Ukinute su formalne zakonske prepreke za žene, zatim je zabranjena diskriminacija i garantovano je pravo na ravnopravnost, &scaron;to je omogućilo de iure ravnopravnost, a nakon toga se teži ostvarivanju de facto ravnopravnosti. Međutim, su&scaron;tinska ravnopravnost između žena i mu&scaron;karaca jo&scaron; uvek nije dostignuta. Žene &scaron;irom sveta i dalje su u nepovoljnijem položaju u poređenju sa mu&scaron;karcima, diskriminisane su u svim sferama javnog i privatnog života i izložene su nasilju. Pored toga, žene su veoma heterogena grupa, a pojedine grupe žena vi&scaron;estruko su marginalizovane i izložene su većem riziku od vi&scaron;estruke diskriminacije, pa je njihov položaj mnogo lo&scaron;iji u poređenju sa ženama i mu&scaron;karcima iz većinske populacije, kao i mu&scaron;karcima iz njihove manjinske grupe. Vi&scaron;estruka diskriminacija je složen dru&scaron;tveni fenomen, kojim se bave mnoge naučne discipline, zbog čega je bilo neophodno interdisciplinarno istraživanje.<br />U radu se bavim istraživanjem fenomena vi&scaron;estruke diskriminacijom žena, kao i dometima i ograničenjima pravne za&scaron;tite žena od vi&scaron;estruke diskriminacije u Republici Srbiji i Austriji, Bugarskoj, Hrvatskoj, Francuskoj i Nemačkoj, kao odabranim državama Evropske unije. Teorijski okvir ovog rada su feminističke teorije uop&scaron;te, a posebno feministička pravna teorija koju Marta Kamalas (Martha Chamallas) defini&scaron;e kao feminističku pravnu teoriju generacije kompleksnih identiteta, a Kler Dalton (Claire Dalton) kao fazu raznovrsnosti. Podele koje su one formulisale povezane su sa pravnim teorijama jednakosti i ravnopravnosti, koje su važan deo teorijskog okvira ovog rada jer je na osnovu njih zabranjena diskriminacija, odnosno, kako je to Sandra Fredman definisala, ukinute su formalne zakonske prepreke, direktna i indirektna diskriminacija zabranjena su u svim sferama i uvedeni su mehanizmi za promovisanje ravnopravnosti. Feministička teorija intersekcionalnosti, koju je uspostavila Kimberli Kren&scaron;o (Kimberl&eacute; Crenshaw) predstavlja važan deo teorijskog okvira ovog rada, jer je za razumevanje pojma vi&scaron;estruke diskriminacije važno razumevanje vi&scaron;estrukosti identiteta i njihove međusobne zavisnosti i neodvojivosti. Teorija intersekcionalnosti nagla&scaron;ava da fokus mora da bude na jedinstvenom identitetu osobe, a obuhvata i nove koncepte u kojima se prevazilaze lična svojstva kao delovi identiteta i grupe koje se stvaraju na osnovu jednog ili vi&scaron;e ličnih svojstava, te kao sredi&scaron;no pitanje postavlja odnos moći koji deluje u odnosu na specifičan jedinstveni i nedeljivi identitet neke osobe. Predmet mog interesovanja bio je da li pravo ima odgovor na nedeljivost identiteta žena, &scaron;to znači da sam istraživala da li je u antidiskriminacionim postupcima prepoznata vi&scaron;estruka diskriminacija, kao i da li žene koje pripadaju vi&scaron;estruko marginalizovanim grupama imaju adekvatnu mogućnost efikasne i delotvorne za&scaron;tite od diskriminacije. U radu zastupam tezu da je zabrana vi&scaron;estruke diskriminacije potreban, ali ne i dovoljan uslov za adekvatnu za&scaron;titu žena od vi&scaron;estruke diskriminacije, odnosno, da samo propisivanje zabrane vi&scaron;estruke nije dovoljno da bi žene dobile adekvatnu za&scaron;titu od diskriminacije. Takođe, zastupam tezu da prepreku ostvarivanju ravnopravnosti vi&scaron;estruko diskriminisanih žena predstavlja nedostatak su&scaron;tinskog razumevanja fenomena vi&scaron;estruke diskriminacije među sudijama i advokatima, koji često odlučuju pod uticajem sopstvenih predrasuda i stereotipa, &scaron;to pravnu za&scaron;titu od diskriminacije čini nedelotvornom i dodatno marginalizuje žene. Zbog toga sam analizirala sudsku praksu i praksu nacionalnih tela za ravnopravnost u Srbiji i odabanim državama Evropske unije, kao i praksu Evropskog suda za ljudska prava i Suda pravde Evropske unije, u slučajevima vi&scaron;estruke diskriminacije žena.<br />Rezultati istraživanja pokazuju da je broj postupaka za za&scaron;titu žena od vi&scaron;estruke diskriminacije veoma mali, kao i da postoje brojni izazovi u obezbeđivanju efikasne i delotvorne pravne za&scaron;tite od vi&scaron;estruke diskriminacije žena, koji između ostalog, uključuju i određene normativne nedostatke u pravnim sistemima država, su&scaron;tinsko nerazumevanje vi&scaron;estruke diskriminacije žena, odlučivanje pod uticajem rodnih stereotipa i predrasuda, kao i te&scaron;koće u primeni pojedinih odredaba zakona.</p><p>Rad nudi uvid u prepreke i izazove u pravnoj za&scaron;titi žena od vi&scaron;estruke diskriminacije, koje je neophodno otkloniti kako bi se vi&scaron;estruko diskriminisanim ženama obezbedila efikasna i delotvorna za&scaron;tita od diskriminacije. Rezultati istraživanja mogu biti od koristi pravnim profesionalcima (sudijama i advokatima), kao i donosiocima odluka i op&scaron;toj javnosti, u cilju podizanja svesti, boljeg razumevanja fenomena vi&scaron;estruke diskriminacije žena i pobolj&scaron;anja pravne za&scaron;tite žena od vi&scaron;estruke diskriminacije.</p> / <p>In recent decades, human rights, including the right to equality and the right to freedom from discrimination, have been intensively developed at the universal and regional levels. This has contributed to progress in the realization of women&#39;s rights and gender equality. Formal legal barriers for women were abolished, discrimination was then banned and the right to equality was guaranteed, which enabled de iure equality, and subsequently sought to achieve de facto equality. However, substantive equality between women and men has not yet been achieved. Women around the world are still disadvantaged compared to men, discriminated against in all spheres of public and private life and subjected to violence. In addition, women are a very heterogeneous group, and some groups of women are marginalized and at higher risk of multiple discrimination, so their position is much worse compared to women and men in the majority population as well as men from their minority group. Multiple discrimination is a complex social phenomenon researched by many scientific disciplines, and interdisciplinary approach is necessary.</p><p>The dissertation deals with the phenomenon of multiple discrimination against women, as well as the scope and limitations of legal protection of women against multiple discrimination in the Republic of Serbia and Austria, Bulgaria, Croatia, France and Germany, as selected countries of the European Union. The theoretical framework of this paper is feminist theories in general, and feminist legal theory in particular, which Martha Chamallas defines as the feminist legal theory of the generation of complex identities, and Claire Dalton defines it as the phase of diversity. The divisions they formulate are linked to the legal theories of equity and equality, which are an important part of the theoretical framework of this dissertation because the prohibition of discrimination is based on those theories. Sandra Fredman defines it as follows: formal legal barriers are abolished, direct and indirect discrimination is prohibited in all spheres, and mechanisms have been introduced to promote equality. The feminist theory of intersectionality, founded by Kimberl&eacute; Crenshaw, is an important part of the theoretical framework of this dissertation because understanding the multiple identities and their interdependence and inseparability is important for understanding the concept of multiple discrimination. Intersectionality theory emphasizes that the focus must be on the unique identity of the person, and introduces new concepts in which separate parts of identities, and groups created on the basis of one or more personal traits should be overcame. In addition, the central question should be focused on power dynamics acting in relation to the specific unique and indivisible identity of a person. The subject of my interest was whether the legal systems have an answer to the indivisibility of women&#39;s identities, which means that I researched whether multiple discrimination was recognized in anti-discrimination proceedings, and whether women belonging to multiple marginalized groups had an adequate possibility to be efficiently and effectively protected against discrimination. In my dissertation, I argue that the prohibition of multiple discrimination is a necessary but not sufficient condition for adequate protection of women against multiple discrimination, that is, the mere introduction of a prohibition of multiple discrimination in legislation is not sufficient for women to obtain adequate protection against discrimination. I also argue that the barrier to achieving equality for multiple discriminated women is the lack of an essential understanding of the phenomenon of multiple discrimination among judges and lawyers, who often decide under the influence of their own prejudices and stereotypes, which renders legal protection against discrimination ineffective and further marginalizes women. Therefore, I have analyzed the case law and practice of national equality bodies in Serbia and selected European Union countries, as well as the practice of the European Court of Human Rights and the Court of Justice of the European Union in cases of multiple discrimination against women.<br />The results of the research show that the number of procedures for the protection of women from multiple discrimination is very small, and that there are numerous challenges in ensuring effective and effective legal protection against multiple discrimination against women, which include, among other things, certain regulatory deficiencies in the legal systems of the states, lack of understanding of multiple discrimination against women, decision making under the influence of gender stereotypes and prejudices, and difficulties in applying certain provisions of the law.</p><p>The dissertation offers insights into the obstacles and challenges in the legal protection of women against multiple discrimination, which need to be addressed in order to provide effective and efficient protection from multiple discriminated against women. The results of the research can be useful to legal professionals (judges and lawyers) as well as decision makers and the general public, with the aim of raising awareness, better understanding the phenomenon of multiple discrimination against women and improving the legal protection of women against multiple discrimination.</p>

En este trabajo se analizan las representaciónes de dos categorías sociales, las mujeres y los indígenas en dos novelas latinoamericanas cuyas tramas acontecen en la primera mitad del siglo XX en Perú y México, respectivamente: La casa verde (1965) del escritor peruano Mario Vargas Llosa y Oficio de tinieblas (1962) de la escritora mexicana Rosario Castellanos. Nos proponemos analizar cómo diferentes formas de discriminación (referidas a clase social, género sexual y etnicidad) se entrecruzan en las novelas. Para ello vamos a realizar un análisis cuantitativo y cualitativo de una selección de diálogos de ambas novelas. Para llevar a cabo el análisis cuantitativo vamos a valernos del test de Bechdel. Mediante el cual podremos comprobar si hay una escasa cantidad de diálogos entre mujeres e indígenas en comparación con otros grupos sociales, lo cual nos permitirá visualizar posibles desigualdades en las representaciones de ambos grupos sociales en las novelas. En nuestra parte cualitativa, a través de un análisis crítico del discurso y utilizando una perspectiva interseccional, analizamos los diálogos directos en los que se habla sobre estos dos grupos sociales, las mujeres y los indígenas, para poder estudiar su representación en las novelas y para ver si encontramos elementos que puedan considerarse discriminatorios con respecto a estos grupos sociales. Finalmente, se compara el resultado cuantitativo con el resultado cualitativo para así poder también probar la conveniencia del test de Bechdel para analizar desigualdades en los medios de ficción. / The aim of this paper is to analyse the representation of two social categories, women and natives, in two Latin American novels, whose plot takes place in the first half of the twentieth century in Peru and Mexico, respectively: The green house/La casa verde (1965) by Peruvian author Mario Vargas Llosa and The book of lamentation/Oficio de tinieblas (1962) by Mexican author Rosario Castellanos. In this study, we will analyse how different forms of discrimination (regarding social class, gender and ethnicity) intersect in both novels. We will use a quantitative and qualitative analysis of selected dialogues of both novels. To perform the quantitative analysis, we will make use of the Bechdeltest. Through this test we can study a small amount of dialogues between women and natives compared to other social groups, allowing us to visualize possible inequalities in the representation of both social groups in the novels. In our qualitative part we will study the dialogues in which the interlocutors talk about these two social groups, women and natives, to interpret their representation in the novels and to find out if there are elements that may be considered discriminatory with respect to these social groups, through a critical discourse analysis and an intersectional perspective. Finally, the quantitative result is compared with the qualitative results so that we can test the suitability of Bechdel test to analyse inequalities in the media fiction.

Migration ist eines der präsentesten und prägendsten Themen unserer Zeit. In dieser Ethnographie richtet sich der Blick exemplarisch auf die Akteur*innen der (‚Gastarbeits‘-)Migration, hier konkret auf mehrgenerationelle Familien im transnationalen sozialen Migrations- und Verflechtungsraum Türkei-Deutschland. Im Fokus stehen dabei ihre Identitätsprozesse, In- und Exklusionserfahrungen und Empowermentpraxen nicht nur während der ‚Gastarbeits‘-, sondern auch in der Prä- und Postmigrationsphase. Migration wird in dieser Forschungsarbeit akteurszentriert aus dem konkreten sozialen, hier familiär eingebetteten Alltagshandeln und den Narrationen ihrer Subjekte in dichter teilnehmender Beobachtung beschrieben. Auf den Fersen der Familien(angehörigen) und ihren Identitäten in Bewegung erweiterte sich die Feldforschung zu einer multilokalen, -methodischen und -lingualen Ethnographie. Als Proband*innen traten dabei zwei Familien aus der ostanatolischen Dersim-Region der Türkei mit zwei Spezifika hervor; zum einen durch ihre ursprünglich familiäre Sprache Zazaki und zum anderen ihre Zugehörigkeit zur alevitischen (Glaubens-)Gemeinschaft, wobei innerhalb des alevitischen Glaubenssystems die eine einer Ocak- und die andere einer Talip-Familie angehört. Migration und darin auch Identitätsarbeit zeigen sich in dieser Familienethnographie als ein geistig, körperlich wie auch emotional konflikthafter und komplexer individuell-sozialer Prozess der permanenten Aushandlung und Veränderung unter Bedingungen von Diversität und intersektionaler Differenz. In ihrer Ambivalenz ist dieser Prozess somit Herausforderung und Chance zugleich. Resümierend lässt sich Identitätsarbeit im transnationalen Migrations- und Familienraum auch als Empowerment- und Powersharingarbeit beschreiben, als einem kreativ-interaktiven Handeln im „dritten Raum“, dem „Zwischenraum“ (BHABHA), in dem jenseits von Norm und Abweichung bzw. Insider- und Outsider-Positionalitäten (ELIAS/SCOTSON) „hybride“ bzw. „transkulturelle“ Identitäten und Lebensentwürfe möglichen werden und damit als dritte Positionalität die transformative Positionalität des Transsiders entsteht. / Migration is one of the most prominent and formative issues of our time. In this ethnography, the analytical gaze is trained on the actors of (guest work) migration, specifically on multi-generational families in the interwoven transnational migration space of Turkey-Germany. The focus is on their identity processes, experiences of inclusion and exclusion, and empowerment practices not only during the ‚guest work‘ phase, but also during the pre- and post-migration phases. In this study, migration is described in actor-centered fashion through the close participant-observation of concrete social actions embedded in the families’ everyday lives as well as the narratives of the research subjects. Following the family members and their identities in motion, the field research constitutes a multi-local, multi-method, and multi-lingual ethnography. The main research subjects are two families from the eastern Anatolian Dersim region of Turkey with two specific characteristics. On the one hand, the families speak Zazaki as their original native language. On the other, they belong to the Alevi (faith) community, whereby one belongs to an Ocak family within the Alevi belief system while the other belongs to a Talip family. Migration and the identity work associated with it emerge in this family ethnography as a mentally, physically, and emotionally complex individual and social process that requires constant negotiation and change under conditions of diversity and intersectional difference. In its ambivalence, this process is both a challenge and an opportunity. In sum, identity work in the transnational migration and family space can also be described as empowerment and power-sharing work, as creative, interactive action in the „third space“ or „in-between space“ (BHABHA). Beyond the positionalities of the norm and the exception, the insider and the outsider (ELIAS/SCOTSON), „hybrid“ or „transcultural“ identities and life plans become possible, and the transformative third positionality of the transsider emerges.