Iron oxide catalyst have been used to perform high temperature water-gas shift reactions (HTWGSR). They have shown to be affective for application in a pyrolysis gas pre-conditioning step to create a hydrogen enriched gas and possibly removing the need for bio-crude condensation before further treatment or use. A small-scale experimental study of an iron oxide catalyst with additives provided by Topsoe, exposed to different H2O:CO ratios temperatures was conducted. The catalyst was first activated following steps given by the supplier. The different H2O:CO ratios tested on the catalyst were 2:1, 4:1 and 6:1 at 350 °C and 2:1, 4:1 and 6:1 at 450 °C. The space velocity was kept constant at 52500 L/(kgcat·h) for all the experiments. No significant deactivation was observed through the 18-hour experiment, based on Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) results. The results show that the highest conversion of CO was achieved at 4:1 H2O:CO ratio at 450 °C, the best H2 selectivity was at 2:1 H2O:CO ratio at 350 °C, and the highest yield was obtained at 6:1 ratio at 450 °C. The initial condition (4:1 H2O:CO ratio at 350 °C) showed anomalous activity as it had a surprisingly low H2 selectivity (25%) and a comparatively high conversion of CO (20.8%). This could have been due to systematic error or possibly due to other side reactions (production of methane) happening. Literature on similar behaviour was not found. A two-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) test was conducted and concluded that all 3 noll hypotheses could be rejected, furthermore, have 3 separate 2x2 factorial design tests been done using MATLAB where the results show that all effects including interaction effects were active with the most significant effect being the change in temperature and the least significant being the change in H2O:CO ratio above 4:1. The results show that this particular iron oxide catalyst with additives provided by Topsoe operates best at temperatures around 450 °C at a H2O:CO ratio of 4:1 or above. It shows no signs of deactivation and may be able to perform WGSR for extended periods of time. / Järnoxidkatalysatorer har använts för att utföra reaktioner för vatten-gasskift vid höga temperaturer (HTWGSR). De har visat sig vara effektiva för tillämpning i ett pyrolysgasförberedningssteg för att skapa en väteberikad gas och eventuellt eliminera behovet av kondensering av biologisk råolja innan ytterligare behandling eller användning. En småskalig experimentell studie av en järnoxidkatalysator med tillsatser från leverantören Topsoe, utsatt för olika H2O:CO-förhållanden vid olika temperaturer, genomfördes. Katalysatorn aktiverades först enligt de anvisningar som lämnats av leverantören. De olika förhållandena som testades på katalysatorn var 2:1, 4:1 och 6:1 vid 350 °C samt 2:1, 4:1 och 6:1 vid 450 °C. Utrymmeshastigheten (space velocity) hölls konstant på 52500 L/(kgcat·h) för alla experiment. Ingen signifikant inaktivering observerades under det 18 timmar långa experimentet, baserat på Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) resultat. Resultaten visar att den högsta konverteringen av CO uppnåddes vid 4:1 H2O:CO-förhållande vid 450 °C. Bästa H2-selektiviteten observerades vid 2:1 H2O:CO-förhållande vid 350 °C, medan högsta utbytet erhölls vid 6:1-förhållande vid 450 °C. Det initiala förhållandet (4:1 H2O:CO vid 350 °C) visade anomalt beteende med en låg H2-selektivitet (25%) och en jämförelsevis hög konvertering av CO (20,8%). Detta kan ha berott på systematiskt fel eller möjligen på andra sidoreaktioner (produktion av metan). Litteratur om liknande beteende hittades inte. En tvåvägs Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) test genomfördes och slutsatsen var att alla tre nollhypoteser kunde förkastas. Dessutom har tre separata 2x2-faktoriella designtester utförts med hjälp av MATLAB, där resultaten visar att alla effekter, inklusive interaktionseffekter, var aktiva. Den mest signifikanta effekten var förändringen i temperatur, medan den minst signifikanta var förändringen i H2O:CO-förhållandet över 4:1. Resultaten visar att den specifika järnoxidkatalysatorn med tillsatser från Topsoe fungerar bäst vid temperaturer runt 450 °C och vid ett H2O:CO-förhållande på 4:1 eller högre. Den visar inga tecken på inaktivering och kan möjligen utföra WGSR under förlängda tidsperioder.

Μαγνητικά νανοσωματίδια οξειδίων του σιδήρου παρασκευάσθηκαν μέσω της αλκαλικής συμπύκνωσης και ελεγχόμενης καταβύθισης συμπλόκων ιόντων FeII, υπό την παρουσία τυχαίου συμπολυμερούς PAA-co-MA. Οι παράμετροι της σύνθεσης μεταβλήθηκαν με σκοπό την απομόνωση προϊόντων που να εμφανίζουν τις καλύτερες μαγνητικές ιδιότητες. Όλα τα προϊόντα εμφάνισαν υψηλή κολλοειδή σταθερότητα σε υδατικά μέσα χαμηλής ιοντικής ισχύος, ενώ ο σιδηρομαγνητικός τους χαρακτήρας έδειξε να ποικίλει από ασθενής μέχρι αρκετά ισχυρός, όπως προέκυψε μετά τον χαρακτηρισμό τους με μαγνητοφόρηση και μαγνητική υπερθερμία με εναλλασόμενο μαγνητικό πεδίο. Το μέσο μέγεθος των νανοκρυσταλλιτών ήταν διαφορετικό σε κάθε προϊόν κυμαινόμενο από περίπου 3 έως 14 nm, όπως προσδιορίστηκε μέσω XRD. Η ανάλυση με ΤΕΜ έδειξε ότι στο προϊόν που εμφανίζει τις καλύτερες μαγνητικές ιδιότητες σχηματίζονται πλειάδες νανοσωματιδίων πυκνής διάταξης, και στις οποίες αποδίδεται η βελτιωμένη απόκριση σε μαγνητικά πεδία. Τα άλλα προϊόντα εμφάνισαν μικρότερα μεγέθη κρυσταλλιτών και διαφορετικά δομικά χαρακτηριστικά. Τα κολλοειδή καταβυθίζονταν κατόπιν αύξησης της ιοντικής ισχύος του διαλύτη. Για τον λόγο αυτό αποφασίστηκε η μελέτη της αντίδρασης σύζευξης των εξωτερικών καρβοξυλικών ομάδων του πολυμερικού φλοιού με mPEG-NH2, δεδομένου ότι η PEG αυξάνει σημαντικά τη σταθερότητα των κολλοειδών. Παρά το γεγονός ότι χρησιμοποιήθηκαν κοινά αντιδραστήρια σύζευξης, μόνο υπό πολύ ειδικές συνθήκες η απόδοση της αντίδρασης ήταν ικανοποιητική, οπότε και προέκυψαν σταθερά κολλοειδή σε συνθήκες υψηλής ιοντικής ισχύος. Τέλος, τα προϊόντα αξιολογήθηκαν για την ικανότητά τους να επάγουν υπερθερμία και μελετήθηκε ο χρόνος χαλάρωσης Τ2, ο οποίος σχετίζεται άμεσα με την ενίσχυση της αντίθεσης στην απεικόνιση μέσω μαγνητικού συντονισμού. Τέλος, ένα από τα προϊόντα, μελετήθηκε in vitro και in νίνο, προκειμένου να αξιολογηθεί η βιοσυμβατότητα του. Τα συστήματα αυτά παρουσιάζουν πολύ ενδιαφέρουσες ιδιότητες ώστε να τροποποιηθούν και να μελετηθούν περεταίρω ως θεραπευτικά ή/και διαγνωστικά νανοϋλικά. / Μagnetic nanoparticles of iron oxides were synthesized through condensation and controlled precipitation of a FeII complex, in alkaline environment, in the presence of a random copolymer PAA-co-MA, as polymeric corona. The synthetic parameters were varied with the aim of isolating products exhibiting the best magnetic properties. All products displayed high colloidal stability in low ionic strength aqueous media, while their ferromagnetic properties varied from weak to quite strong, as deduced after the characterization with magnetophoresis and magnetic hyperthermia with alternating magnetic field. The average crystallite size, as determined through XRD, varied from 8 to 14 nm depending on the product. TEM analysis showed that the product displaying the best magnetic properties formed clusters of densely packed nanocrystallites, leading to interesting superstructural motifs. All the other products displayed smaller crystallite sizes and different structural characteristics. The colloids precipitated upon increase of the ionic strength of the solvent (H2O) with NaCl. Therefore, it was decided to study the conjugation of the outer carboxyl groups of the polymeric corona with mPEG-NH2, since PEG is known to increase significantly the stability of colloids. Despite the fact that common conjugation reagents were used, only under specific conditions the yied of the reaction was appropriately high in order the resultant colloids to be stable in a high ionic strength (isotonic) medium. Finally the products were evaluated for their performance in magnetic hyperthermia and for contrast enhancement in magnetic resonance imaging, by studying the T2 relaxation time. One of the products was furthermore studied by in vitro and in vivo systems, in order to evaluate its biocompatibility. These colloidal systems exhibit very interesting properties in order to be further modified and studied as therapeutic and / or diagnostic (theragnostic) nanomaterials.

Ce travail de thèse s'inscrit dans le cadre d'une collaboration avec le groupe Guerbet. Il visait à caractériser la lésion qui fait suite à un accident vasculaire cérébral (AVC) ischémique en imagerie par résonance magnétique (IRM) grâce à des agents de contraste novateurs. Guerbet et leurs collaborateurs ont développés des USPIO ciblés (ultrasmall superparamagnetic iron oxide), particules de fer couplées à des peptides reconnaissant spécifiquement un biomarqueur. Dans un modèle d’ischémie cérébrale avec reperfusion réalisé chez la souris, nous avons recherché la capacité de ces agents à caractériser la lésion d’une part en terme de type de mort cellulaire par le ciblage de la phosphatidylsérine (PS), marqueur cellulaire externalisé au cours de l’apoptose, et d’autre part en terme de déficit vasculaire par le ciblage de VCAM-1, molécule d’adhésion impliquée dans le processus inflammatoire. En ce qui concerne l’apoptose, nous avons tout d’abord montré par immunohistochimie l’expression de caspase-3 active, marqueur apoptotique, dès 6 heures et jusqu’à 72 heures après l’ischémie. Cependant, en IRM, l’utilisation d’USPIO ciblant la PS (le P03234 et le P03675) n’a pas permis la détection du phénomène apoptotique. Actuellement d’autres agents de contraste de ce type sont en cours de développement chez Guerbet. En ce qui concerne l’inflammation vasculaire, l’étude de l’expression de VCAM-1 par immunohistochimie a montré l’apparition d’un marquage dès 6 heures après l’ischémie avec un maximum à 24 heures. L’utilisation d’un USPIO-VCAM-1 (le P03011) a permis de mettre en évidence sur les images IRM des zones d’hypointensités dans la lésion, ce qui correspond à la présence de particules de fer. L'analyse histologique de ces cerveaux a montré une colocalisation de l’USPIO avec sa cible VCAM-1, ce qui établit la preuve de concept. Ces travaux ont permis mettre en évidence la capacité d’USPIO développés par Guerbet à cibler des marqueurs biologiques, notamment VCAM-1, à la suite d’une ischémie cérébrale. Ceci suggère que ce type d’agent de contraste pourrait être un bon outil clinique pour la caractérisation de la lésion ischémique chez les patients victimes d’AVC. / This work is a collaboration with Guerbet group. It aimed to characterize the lesion that follows an ischemic stroke with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) by innovative contrast agents. Guerbet developped targeted USPIO (ultrasmall superparamagnetic iron oxide), which are iron particles coupled to peptides which specifically bind a biomarker. In a mouse model of cerebral ischemia-reperfusion, we studied the capacity of these agents to characterize the lesion on the one hand in terms of cellular death by targeting phosphatidylserin (PS), a cellular marker externalized during apoptosis, and on the other hand in terms of vascular deficit by targeting VCAM-1, an adhesion molecule implied in the inflammatory process. Concerning apoptosis, we showed by immunohistochemistry the expression of active caspase-3, an apoptotic marker, between 6 and 72 hours after ischemia. Nevertheless on MRI, the use of USPIO targeting PS (both P03234 and P03675) did not allow us to detect the apoptotic phenomenon. Currently, other PS-targeted contrast agents are developed by Guerbet. Concerning vascular inflammation, the study of VCAM-1 by immunohistochemistry showed an up-regulated expression 6 hours after ischaemia which reached a maximum at 24 hours. VCAM-1-USPIO (P03011) induced a decrease of the MRI signal appearing as hypointense foci in the lesion, which correspond to iron particles. The histological analysis of these brains showed a colocalisation of the USPIO with its target VCAM-1, which establishes the proof of concept. This work showed the capacity of USPIO developed by Guerbet to target biological markers, particularly VCAM-1, following cerebral ischemia. This suggests that this kind of contrast agent could be a good clinical tool to characterize the ischemic lesion in patients suffering from stroke.

En conséquence de l'extension de l’utilisation des nanoparticules dans différents secteurs industriels, le nombre de travailleurs potentiellement exposés ne cesse de croître, sans parfaitement connaître les propriétés toxicologiques de ces matériaux. Étant donné que les nanoparticules peuvent se trouver en suspension dans l’atmosphère professionnelle, l'inhalation représente une voie d'exposition professionnelle majeure. De ce fait, l’évaluation des risques liés à l’exposition aux nanomatériaux requiert d’entreprendre des études de toxicologie sur des modèles cellulaires des voies aériennes. Dans ce manuscrit, les réponses cellulaires et moléculaires des macrophages alvéolaires de rat (NR8383) exposés à des nanoparticules d’oxydes métalliques : ZnO, ZnFe2O4, NiZnFe2O4, Fe2O3, TiO2-NM105 et TiO2-NRCWE001, ont été étudiées, en combinant des analyses toxicologiques classiques (caractérisation des nanoparticules par microscopie électronique à transmission et par diffusion dynamique de la lumière, évaluation de la cytotoxicité par tests WST-1 et libération de LDH); et de criblage moléculaire à haut débit (analyses de transcriptomique et de protéomique). Des cellules NR8383 ont été exposées aux nanoparticules ZnO, ZnFe2O4, NiZnFe2O4, Fe2O3, TiO2-NM105 et TiO2-NRCWE001 pendant 24 h ce qui a permis de déterminer une dose sub-toxique pour chaque nanoparticule à laquelle les macrophages ont été exposés pour l’analyse moléculaire. Quatre heures suite à l’exposition des cellules aux nanoparticules, de nombreux gènes et protéines étaient différentiellement exprimés. Le stress oxydant était la réponse biologique adverse suite à l’exposition des cellules aux nanoparticules composées de zinc. En revanche, l’inflammation était la principale voie activée dans les cellules exposées à la forme anatase et rutile des nanoparticules de TiO2. En conclusion, cette étude expose les « empreintes biologiques » des deux groupes de nanoparticules d’intérêt. Enfin, notre étude combinée à des travaux antérieurs de la littérature pourraient aussi être profitables pour valider les biomarqueurs d’exposition et d’effets aux nanomatériaux suggérés afin de prédire les effets biologiques adverses. / As a consequence of the extension of the use of nanoparticles in different industrial sectors, the number of potentially exposed workers continues to grow, without fully knowing the toxicological properties of these materials. Since nanoparticles can be aerosolized in the occupational atmosphere, inhalation is the major occupational exposure route. For this reason, risk assessment of exposure to nanomaterials requires toxicology studies to be conducted on cellular models of the airways. In this manuscript, the cellular and molecular responses of rat alveolar macrophages (NR8383) exposed to metallic oxide nanoparticles: ZnO, ZnFe2O4, NiZnFe2O4, Fe2O3, TiO2-NM105 and TiO2-NRCWE001, were studied, combining conventional toxicological analyzes (characterization of nanoparticles by transmission electron microscopy and dynamic light scattering, evaluation of cytotoxicity by WST-1 assays and LDH release); and high throughput molecular screening (transcriptomic and proteomic analyzes). NR8383 cells were exposed to the ZnO, ZnFe2O4, NiZnFe2O4, Fe2O3, TiO2-NM105 and TiO2-NRCWE001 nanoparticles for 24 h which allowed for the determination of a sub-toxic dose for each nanoparticle to which the macrophages were exposed for molecular analysis. Four hours after exposure NR8383 to nanoparticles, many genes and proteins were differentially expressed. Oxidative stress was the adverse biological response following exposure of cells to nanoparticles composed of zinc. In contrast, inflammation was the main activated pathway in cells exposed to the anatase and rutile form of TiO2 nanoparticles. In conclusion, this study exposes the "biological fingerprints" of the two groups of nanoparticles of interest. Finally, our study, combined with previous literature studies, could also be beneficial in validating biomarkers of exposure and effects of nanomaterials suggested in order to predict adverse biological effects.

M. Tech. (Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Applied and Computer Sciences), Vaal University of Technology. / Water polluted by recalcitrant organics, such as methylene blue (MB), can be treated with the Fenton reaction. The Fenton reaction degrades the pollutants through catalytic oxidation. Unsupported iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs) were used as catalysts in this study. Iron oxide nanoparticles were synthesised using a precipitation-oxidation method and effects of various preparation parameters on the shape, size and catalytic activity of the iron oxide nanoparticles were studied. Parameters investigated include preparation temperature, type and amount of precipitating agent. The precipitating agents used are sodium hydroxide, tetramethyl ammonium hydroxide (TMAOH), tetraethyl ammonium hydroxide (TEAOH) and ethylamine. The iron oxide nanoparticles were found to be spherical for most of the preparation conditions as determined by TEM. However, irregular flower-like shapes (hexagonal with rod extensions) were obtained when the amounts of the TMAOH and TEAOH bases were more than the stoichiometric amounts. The nature and amount of precipitating agent also influenced the degree of particle agglomeration and growth, with an increase in alkyl chains in the base giving lesser agglomeration. The preparation temperature did not influence the nanoparticles’ size when NaOH was used as a precipitating agent. In contrast, when an amine was used as a precipitation agent, caused a slight increase in the size of the nanoparticles. Different crystal phases like hematite, magnetite, maghemite and goethite-hematite mixture were identified in the X-ray diffractograms. UV-Vis spectroscopy showed that all the catalysts were red-shifted except for B3 sample, which was blue-shifted from the bulk materials. The highest catalytic activities were obtained when NaOH was used as a precipitation agent instead of amine since catalyst has shown to contain the traces amounts of the base used on the surface. The lower catalytic activities for the catalysts prepared using amines may be due to amines adsorbed on the surface and blocking the catalytic active sites. FTIR spectra showed the presence of trace amounts of ammine functional groups on the nanoparticles No correlation was found between the crystallite size and the Fenton catalytic activity of the catalyst. In the same vein, operational parameters such as the amount of H2O2 and temperatures did not show a direct effect on the Fenton catalytic efficiency. Kinetic studies show that the degradation of methylene blue followed the first-order models for all the catalysts prepared with NaOH. Overall, the study shows that different preparation parameters had an effect on the size, shape, phase and the catalytic performance of the synthesised IONPs.

M.Tech. (Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Applied and Computer Sciences), Vaal University of Technology. / Several industries utilize species of synthetic dyes that are found in their wastewater, which is passed out in the environment. Methylene blue is one of the organic dyes that causes water pollution. It causes damage to the aquatic eco-system and health problems to human beings. It is non-biodegradable due to its chemical nature. Advanced oxidation processes (AOP’s) have been developed for the degradation of these dyes, however, some of these methods are limited due to their high cost and low efficiency. Among these methods, Fenton catalysis has been proven to be an effective method due to its low cost, high efficiency, and re-usability. Iron oxide nanoparticles have been mainly used in Fenton process however they are also limitated due to the forming of secondary pollutants, due to catalysts recovery difficulties, hence they require supporting materials. In this work, iron oxide-based catalyst supported on silica nanofibers were fabricated via electrospinning of silica sol incorporated with iron oxide, using three different routes, (a) Method 1 - wetness incipient impregnation, (b) Method 2 - direct addition of iron precursor to the silica sol and (c) Method 3 - incorporation of iron oxide nanoparticles into silica sol. The effect of iron oxide concentration loadings (1 wt%, 2 wt% and 5 wt %) was studied. Increase in iron content resulted in agglomeration of nanoparticles as embedded in the fibers as evident from their SEM images in method 3.1. The SEM results showed diameters from method 1, 2 and 3 ranging from the distribution ranges of 276 – 288 nm, 243 – 265 nm and 188 nm, respectively. EDS showed the presences of Si, P, Fe, O and P. XRD showed a crystalline phase of magnetite (9 nm) and goethite (32 nm) method 1 and 3, with vibrational modes at 3300 cm-1, 1100 cm-1, 950 cm-1 and 580 cm-1 ascribed to O-H, Si-O-Si, Si-O and Fe-O on the FTIR spectra, it showed both the presence of silica and iron oxide. The degradation of methylene blue was monitored by UV-Vis spectroscopy, the Fenton catalytic activity of the iron-oxide supported on silica nanofibers showed higher catalytic activity compared to the unsupported iron-oxide nanoparticles. The catalyst prepared by wetness incipient impregnation (method 1) had a degradation efficiency of 69.1%, the direct addition of iron precursor to the silica sol (method 2) had 75.2% and incorporation of iron oxide nanoparticles magnetite and goethite with the silica sol had 53.7% and 34.7%, respectively. The catalyst prepared by the direct addition of iron precursor in the sol (method 2) showed a high catalytic activity compared to the other catalyst prepared by other methods. Unsupported Iron oxide nanoparticles had a higher degree of leaching of 1.28 ppm magnetite, and 1.68 ppm goethite, compared to the supported iron oxide in method 1 and method 3. The catalyst incorporated with goethite showed a high degree of leaching, 3.95 ppm and 1.33 ppm. The catalyst with high catalytic activity showed a lower degree of leaching with 0.05 ppm.

Two different iron oxide nanofluids were tested for heat transfer properties in industrial cooling systems. The nanofluids either had 30 nm particles with a wide size distribution to include particles greater than 1 micrometer or 15 nm particles with greater than 95% of the particles less than 33 nm. Calorimetry and thermal circuit modeling indicate that the 15 nm particle ferrofluid enhanced heat capacity. The smaller particle ferrofluid also demonstrated up to a 39% improvement in heat transfer, while the larger particle ferrofluid degraded the heat transfer performance. Particles from the larger particle ferrofluid were noted as settling out of a circulating system and therefore not participating in the bulk fluid properties. Application of 0.32% 15nm particles in an open cooling system improved cooling tower efficiency by 7.7% at a flow rate of 11.4 liter per minute and improved cooling tower efficiency by 3.3% at a flow rate of 22.7 liter per minute, while applying 0.53% 15 nm particles also improved cooling tower efficiency but was less effective than the lower concentration.

Iron oxide magnetic nanoparticle synthesis and their surface functionalization hold a crucial position in the design and fabrication of functional materials for a variety of biomedical applications. Non-uniform nanoparticles with poor crystallinity, prepared by conventional methods, have only limited value in biological areas. Large scale synthesis methods that are able to produce high quality, mono-dispersed iron oxide nanoparticles using low cost and environment friendly chemicals are highly desirable. Following synthesis, appropriate surface functionalization is necessary to direct the dispersibility of nanoparticles in aqueous solution in order to provide them with acceptable colloidal stability against the ion strength and many biomolecules that nanoparticles may encounter under physiological conditions. Poorly stabilized nanoparticles that easily aggregate and form large size agglomerates would be quickly cleared by the liver and other organs and are not suitable for clinical purposes. Additionally, many interesting functionalities such as fluorescence, targeting and anti-cancer properties can be immobilized onto the surface of iron oxide magnetic nanoparticles during the surface functionalization process so as to build multifunctional platforms for disease diagnosis and treatment. Polyol method can be an effective way to prepare magnetite nanoparticles that are suitable for biological applications. In a polyol system, selected surface functionalities were introduced to the nanoparticle surface via a hot injection technique. The morphology, uniformity, crystallinity and magnetic properties were examined to understand the effect of different ligand molecules on the final product. Their surface chemistry, colloidal properties and surface reactivity were also studied to evaluate their practicability in different applications. A high efficiency in-situ method for the preparation of magnetite nanoparticles attached to silica nanospheres was also developed in a polyol system. This approach eliminates several time-consuming processing steps that are in the conventional fabrication route and directly produces water-stable magnetite-silica hybrid materials with surface availability for subsequent modifications. In addition to polyalcohol, the potential of polyamine in the preparation of water-soluble magnetite nanoparticles with amine surface functionalities was also evaluated. And it is suggested that polyamine acts as solvent, stabilizing agent and reducing agent simultaneously during the synthesis. The characterization of polyamine coated nanoparticles, their surface functionalization, and subsequent application for bioseparation and drug delivery were reported.

Iron oxide nanoparticles (NPs) are promising materials for use in many applications, including new cancer treatments and in cleaning water, because they exhibit size-dependent magnetic and absorptive properties. NP properties are caused by structural attributes of the NPs, like surface disorder and cation vacancies. However, NP synthetic methods also impact structure, therefore properties, of NPs. Furthermore, the synthetic method is often changed in order to change the core diameter of NPs. Determining if properties are caused by the dimensions of the NP is impossible if there are also structural features present in the NP caused by the synthetic method, like grain boundaries or polycrystalline shells. In Chapter II of this dissertation, we show a new continuous growth synthesis of spinel iron oxide where the diameter of NPs is changed by the amount of precursor added to the reaction, meaning the only structural feature changing between the NPs is size. Continuous growth, therefore, can be used to probe the impact that size has on NP structure and properties. We report that saturation magnetization of NPs produced from continuous growth is size-dependent and higher in magnitude than NPs of the same core diameter made by other syntheses. In chapter III of this dissertation we determine nanoscale structure by Pair Distribution Function (PDF) analysis of Total X-ray Scattering data of NPs isolated from the reaction with core diameters between 3-10 nm. In Chapter IV of this dissertation we monitored the growth of NPs in situ with Total X-ray Scattering to gain insight on the structures of NPs while forming. In situ measurements of Total X-ray Scattering data gave insights into how precursor oxidation state influences the structures formed during formation of NPs, with more oxidized precursor giving a more oxidized product and a reduced precursor yielding a more reduced product even though the NPs formed by either method are indistinguishable by ex situ analysis. This dissertation includes previously published and unpublished co-authored material. / 2021-04-30

Dans les domaines de l’imagerie médicale et la thérapie, l’utilisation des nanoparticules est spécialement attrayante et prometteuse. Il est possible de concentrer dans une même particule plusieurs fonctions complémentaires comme la détection, le ciblage mais aussi la thérapie. Cette multifonctionnalité présente de nombreux avantages, et favorise le développement de nanoparticules pour une thérapie ciblée et guidée par l’imagerie.C’est dans ce contexte d’intense activité centrée sur le développement des nanoparticules pour les applications médicales (imagerie et/ou thérapie) que s’est déroulé mon travail de thèse qui s’inscrit dans la continuité des travaux de Christophe Alric et de Pierre Hugounenq. Ils ont développé respectivement des nanoparticules d’or multifonctionnelles (Au@DTDTPA) et des nanofleurs d’oxyde de fer (γ-Fe2O3).Les nanoparticules d’or (Au@DTDTPA) présentent un effet radiosensibilisant et se comportent comme agent de contraste pour l’IRM (après marquage par Gd3+ rendu possible par les propriétés chélatantes de la couche organique DTDTPA) ou comme radiotraceurs après radiomarquage (le DTDTPA forme des complexes stables avec 99mTc et 111In). Le caractère superparamagnétique des nanofleurs d’oxyde de fer confèrent à ces objets la capacité à rehausser le contraste négatif des images et à induire un échauffement sous l’action d’un champ magnétique alternatif de haute fréquence.L’objectif principal de ma thèse consistait à assembler ces deux types de nanoparticules afin de créer un objet nanométrique combinant les propriétés complémentaires des nanoparticules d’or et des nanofleurs d’oxyde de fer. Dans un premier temps, les conditions optimales de greffage des nanoparticules d’or sur les nanofleurs ont été déterminées. Nous avons montré que de tels agents présentaient après injection intraveineuse une biodistribution adaptée comme le révèlent les images acquises en IRM (grâce aux propriétés magnétiques des nanofleurs) et en TEMP (grâce au radiomarquage de la couche des nanoparticules d’or). En outre ces objets présentent un caractère radiosensibilisant qui est mieux exploité que celui des nanoparticules d’or entrant dans la composition de ces nanofleurs dorées. Associé au pouvoir chauffant des nanofleurs, le pouvoir radiosensibilisant des nanofleurs dorées a conduit à une forte inhibition de la croissance tumorale quand le traitement de rats portant un mélanome combine hyperthermie magnétique et radiothérapie après injection intratumorale des nanofleurs dorées.En conclusion, le travail réalisé au cours de cette thèse a mis en évidence l’intérêt de combiner les nanoparticules d’or et les nanofleurs d’oxyde de fer pour traiter des tumeurs solides par thérapie guidée par imagerie. / In the fields of medical imaging and therapy, the use of nanoparticles is especially attractive and promising. It is possible to concentrate in the same particle several complementary functions such as detection, targeting but also therapy. This multifunctionality has many advantages and promotes the development of nanoparticles for targeted therapy and guided by medical imaging.It is in this context of intense activity focused on the development of nanoparticles for medical applications (imaging and/or therapy) that my thesis work was carried out which is in continuity with the work of Christophe Alric and Pierre Hugounenq. They developed multifunctional gold nanoparticles (Au@DTDTPA) and iron oxide nanoflowers (γ-Fe2O3), respectively.The gold nanoparticles (Au @ DTDTPA) exhibit a radiosensitizing effect and behave as a contrast agent for MRI (after labeling with Gd3 +, made possible by the chelating properties of the organic layer DTDTPA) or radiotracers after radiolabelling (DTDTPA forms stable complexes with 99mTc and 111In). The superparamagnetic nature of the iron oxide nanoflowers gives these objects the ability to enhance the negative contrast of the images and to induce heating under the action of an alternating magnetic field of high frequency.The main objective of my thesis was to assemble these two types of nanoparticles in order to create a nanometric object combining the complementary properties of gold nanoparticles and iron oxide nanoflowers. In a first step, the optimal conditions for grafting gold nanoparticles on the nanoflower were determined. We have shown that, after intravenous injection, these agents exhibit a suitable biodistribution, as revealed by MRI images (thanks to the magnetic properties of nanoflowers) and SPECT (thanks to the radiolabeling of the gold nanoparticle layer). Moreover, these objects have a radiosensitizing character which is better exploited than that of the gold nanoparticles in the golden nanoflowers. Associated with the heating power of nanoflower, the radiosensitizing potential of golden nanoflowers has led to a strong inhibition of tumor growth when the treatment of rats carrying melanoma combines magnetic hyperthermia and radiotherapy after injection of golden nanoflower.In conclusion, the work carried out during this thesis has highlighted the value of combining gold nanoparticles and iron oxide nanoflowers to treat solid tumors by imaging-guided therapy.