The diploma thesis deals with the issue of human rights of legal persons according to the ECHR. In addition to natural persons, legal persons are holders of fundamental rights and freedoms. These rights are so important that they are worthy of protection, not only at national level, but also at regional and universal level. For 47 European countries, the protection of fundamental rights and freedoms is ensured by an international organization called the Council of Europe. Within the Council of Europe, there is a European Court of Human Rights established under the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms of 1950. Natural persons and, where the nature of the fundamental rights and freedoms set out in the Convention and its protocols allow, also legal persons lodge complaints with this court. Using a descriptive, comparative, and analytical method, this thesis aims to comprehensively present the legal person in the role of an individual applicant to the ECtHR, paying special attention to the case-law of the ECtHR, specifically judgments on legal persons' applications against the Czech Republic. The work is divided into three parts. The first part deals with the concept of a legal person as such, while further describing its role as an individual applicant to the ECtHR,...

Ce mémoire de maîtrise s’intéresse à la construction du sens des jugements esthétiques dans Le Côté de Guermantes, troisième volume d’À la recherche du temps perdu de Marcel Proust. Le narrateur de ce texte, qui admire des créateurs comme Elstir, Wagner et Hugo, tout en méprisant les Vibert, Auber et autres Bornier, développe un riche discours esthétique qui entre en contradiction avec la plupart des goûts affichés par les personnages du roman, opinions artistiques majoritairement énoncées lors de longues scènes mondaines qui constituent autant un contexte favorable aux conversations artistiques qu’un obstacle à ce que Kant appelle la « pureté » des jugements. Le sens de ces derniers repose sur la présence plus ou moins voilée d’un code esthétique qui, traversant la Recherche, fournit au lecteur des instructions concernant la valeur des différentes unités esthétiques jugées ainsi que la manière de porter un bon jugement. L’analyse de la structure de ce système (que nous décomposons en unités, prédicats, modalités, paramètres et procédés) constitue l’un des aspects de notre travail, qui vise en outre à répondre à des questions suscitées par deux axes de recherche. L’axe esthétique, d’abord, interroge la position de ces jugements entre deux pôles : celui de l’ « esthétique pure » inspirée de la Critique de la faculté de juger de Kant, attitude qui cherche à émettre un jugement libre et désintéressé en priorisant les caractéristiques formelles des œuvres, et celui d’une « esthétique populaire » décrite par Bourdieu dans La Distinction, qui tend à juger les œuvres d’art à partir de critères employés dans l’appréciation des objets dans la vie de tous les jours. Notre axe narratif nous porte quant à lui à nous interroger sur les fonctions caractériologique et sociologique des opinions artistiques. Nous explorons ces questions en étudiant successivement les jugements picturaux, musicaux et littéraires du Côté de Guermantes. / This master explores the production of meaning through aesthetic judgments in The Guermantes Way, the third volume of Marcel Proust’s In Search of Lost Time. The narrator of this text, who admires creators like Elstir, Wagner and Hugo while despising Vibert, Auber and other artists like Bornier, develops a rich aesthetic discourse that contradicts the taste of most of the novel’s characters, whose artistical opinions are mostly exposed in the long social scenes that constitute a good context for artistic conversations as well as an obstacle to what Kant calls the « purity » of judgment. The signification of these passages relies on the presence of a code that, across In Search of Lost Time, provides instructions to the reader about the value of the different aesthetic unities to be judged as well as about the right way to appreciate a work of art. The analysis of this system’s structure (broken down in units, predicates, modalities, settings and processes) is an aspect of our work, which also consists of two lines of research. First, the aesthetical aspect is related to the position of the judgments between two poles : the one of the « pure aesthetic » inspired by Kant’s Critique of Judgment, which is a way of trying to make free and disinterested judgments prioritizing formal characteristics, opposed to the one of a « popular aesthetic » developed in Bourdieu’s La Distinction, which tends to judge a work with the same criteria used in judging an object in everyday life. Then, our narrative line of research explores the character building and the sociological function of artistic opinions. We answer those questions by analysing successively the pictorial, musical and literary aesthetical judgments in The Guermantes Way.

En människas röst är komplex och ofta svår för otränade lyssnare att beskriva verbalt. Det gör att värdefull information riskerar att gå förlorad när öronvittnen intervjuas i samband med en brottsutredning. Syftet i denna studie var att göra öronvittnesmål mer användbara genom att undersöka akustiska korrelat till vanliga röstbeskrivningar. 126 otränade lyssnare deltog i en enkätundersökning och bedömde röstegenskaper hos sju medelålders män som läste en text på svenska. Resultaten visade att röster med högre förstaformant bedömdes som mer spända och hårda, och röster med högre tredjeformant uppfattades som mer vanliga. Kvinnor bedömde röster med högre grundtonsfrekvens som ljusare. Röster som uppfattades som ljusa bedömdes i hög grad som spända och ostadiga, och de som bedömdes som mjuka tenderade att bedömas som mer avslappnade och melodiska. Resultaten bör betraktas med viss försikthet då antalet stimuli var lågt, men de indikerar att formanter har en avgörande betydelse för vår röstperception. Resultaten kan bidra till en ökad förståelse för den information som förmedlas i ett öronvittnesmål samt till att utforma effektiva metoder för att intervjua öronvittnen. På sikt är även akustiska fantomröster en intressant tillämpning. Kommande studier uppmanas att undersöka liknande frågeställningar med fler talare och med andra typer av talmaterial. / A person's voice is complex and often difficult for untrained listeners to describe verbally. This may lead to valuable information being lost in criminal investigations involving earwitnesses. The purpose of this study was to investigate acoustic correlates to common voice descriptions in order to enhance the usefulness of earwitness testimonies. 126 untrained listeners assessed voice characteristics of seven middle-aged men reading a Swedish text. Voices with a higher first formant were judged as more tense and harsh, and voices with a higher third formant were perceived as more common. Women rated voices with a higher fundamental frequency as higher. Voices that were perceived as high were also judged as tense and unstable, and those perceived as soft tended to be judged as relaxed and melodic. The results should be considered with some caution due to the low number of stimuli, but they indicate that formants play a crucial role in voice perception. The results can contribute to the understanding of earwitness testimonies as well as to develop effective methods for interviewing earwitnesses. Acoustic phantom voices are discussed as an interesting application. Future studies should investigate similar questions with more speakers as well as other types of speech material.

Diese Arbeit untersucht prominente Erfassungsmethoden metakognitiver Aktivitäten die während des Lernprozesses zum Einsatz kommen (online) auf deren Güte und Reaktivität. Im Fokus stehen die Methoden Laut-Denken, Fragebogenmethode sowie die Erfassung von Lernleistungsurteilen. Lernaufgaben werden durch komplexe Textlernaufgaben sowie Problemlöseaufgaben in deren Rahmen abduktive Schlüsse gefordert sind repräsentiert. In Studie 1 wurden metakognitive Aktivitäten die mittels retrospektiv eingesetzten Fragebögen sowie mittels Laut-Denken erfasst wurden gegenübergestellt. Dabei wurden die Fragebogenitems parallel zum polytomen Kategoriensystem mit dessen Hilfe die Daten aus der Laut-Denken-Methode ausgewertet wurden konstruiert. Im Rahmen der Auswertung der Laut-Denken Daten war die Übereinstimmung zweiter unabhängiger, gut geschulter Urteiler unbefriedigend. Die Übereinstimmungsunterschiede zwischen den Kategorien sowie zwischen den Probanden waren erheblich. Dies weist darauf hin, dass das Kategoriensystem nicht zur Auswertung der Laut-Denken Daten geeignet ist. Zudem scheinen große Unterschiede in der Nutzung metakognitiver Aktivitäten zwischen den Probanden zu bestehen. Zwischen Fragebogendaten und Laut-Denken-Daten besteht ein geringer nicht signifikanter negativer Zusammenhang. In Studie 2 wurde die Reaktivität der Laut-Denken-Methode und der Aufzeichnung von Lernleistungsurteilen während des Bearbeitens einer Textlese- sowie Problemlöseaufgabe untersucht. Die Ergebnisse dieser experimentellen Studie mit 2x2 Design legen nahe, dass von Laut-Denken im Rahmen von Problemlöseaufgaben reaktive Effekte zu erwarten sind. Von Lernleistungsurteilen hingegen sind reaktive Effekte lediglich im Rahmen von komplexen Textleseaufgaben zu erwarten. Auch im Rahmen dieser Erhebung mittels Laut-Denken konnte lediglich eine unbefriedigende Reliabilität der Messung berichtet werden obgleich in dieser Studie 11 unabhängige Urteiler zum Einsatz kamen. Auch hier wurde keine erwähnenswerte Korrelation zwischen Fragebogendaten und Laut-Denken Erhebung ermittelt. In Studie 3 wurden metakognitive Aktivitäten zu mehreren Messzeitpunkten im Kontext einer komplexen Gruppenlernaufgabe erhoben. Die Ergebnisse weisen auf einen individuellen Einsatz metakognitiver Aktivitäten unabhängig von der Lernsituation hin. Insgesamt lassen die Ergebnisse der Studien darauf schließen, dass Laut-Denken zumindest dann keine valide Erfassung metakognitiver Aktivitäten während des Lernens ermöglicht, wenn polytome Kategoriensysteme mit einer hohen Anzahl an Kategorien zum Einsatz kommen. Außerdem ist in spezifischen Lernsituationen von potentiellen reaktiven Effekte der Erhebung auszugehen. Dies gilt auch für die Erfassung des Monitoring- und Überwachungs-/Regulierungsverhaltens mittels Lernleistungsurteilen.

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Syftet med denna studie är att undersöka hur begripligheten i Göta hovrätts domar förändrats mellan 2001 och 2021. Studien syftar till att undersöka dels hur syntax och lexikon förändrats i domarna, dels hur följsamheten till klarspråksråd har förändrats under perioden. Materialet består av totalt 18 domar från Göta hovrätt: tre brottmålsdomar och tre tvistemålsdomar vardera från 2001, 2011 och 2021. En kombination av kvantitativ och kvalitativ metod har använts i studien: I den kvantitativa analysen undersöktes syntax och lexikon i samtliga 18 domar och i den kvalitativa textanalysen användes klarspråkstestet för domar som verktyg för att analysera sex av domarna djupare. Resultatet visar att det skett förändringar i domspråket under den tid som undersökts, men att det inte är entydigt huruvida domarna har blivit mer begripliga eller ej. Den kvantitativa analysen visar att domarna i många avseenden ligger längre ifrån klarspråksidealet år 2021 än 2001 och 2011. Resultatet av den kvalitativa analysen visar dock att följsamheten till klarspråksråden förbättrats under den undersökta perioden. Facktermer rensas bort eller förklaras i större utsträckning, det juridiska språket närmar sig det vardagliga och tonen blir mer läsarvänlig. Den sammantagna slutsatsen blir därför att domarna i vissa avseenden blivit mer begripliga och närmat sig idealet, men att ytterligare förbättringar krävs för att de ska bli tillgängliga även för icke juridiskt kunniga läsare. / The purpose of this study is to examine how the comprehensibility of the judgments from Göta Court of Appeal has changed between 2001 and 2021. The study aims to examine how the syntax and terminology has changed within the judgments as well as how the compliance with Plain Language Guidelines has changed during this period. The material consists of 18 judgments from Göta Court of Appeal: three criminal convictions and three civil actions each from the years of 2001, 2011 and 2021.A combination of quantitative and qualitative methods has been used: In the quantitative analysis, syntax and terminology were examined in all eighteen judgments and for the qualitative analysis, Klarspråkstestet (“the plain language test”) was used as a mean to further analyze six of the judgments. The results show that the language has changed during the selected period, but it remains ambiguous whether the language has become more comprehensible or not. The quantitative analysis shows that the judgments lie further away from the Plain Language Ideal in 2021 than they did in 2001 and 2011. However, the results of the qualitative analysis show that the compliance with Plain Language Guidelines has improved during this period. Technical terms are removed or explained to a greater extent, the legalese is approaching the everyday language and the tone is becoming more reader friendly. The conclusion is therefore that in some respects, the judgments have become more comprehensible, but that further improvements are required to make them accessible for readers who do not have a clear understanding of judicial language.

Every year, children are subjected to sexual and/or physical abuse or rape, by relatives and/or strangers. We know that it happens in society but due to a large number of unreported cases nobody knows the exact number. Once the children report sexual crimes, professionals argue about the child's credibility. The purpose of this essay is to analyze the district court's (tingsrättens) arguments in order to understand how girls' credibility is presented in relation to other evidence, after they are suspected of having been subjected to sexual abuse. The material we used was twenty-five court cases from district courts in Sweden, where children under the age of fifteen where suspected of having been subjected to sexual abuse. This essay is based on a qualitative method. The collected material has then been analyzed based on Hällgren Graneheim, Lindgren and Lundman's (2023) qualitative content analysis. We have also used Christie's (2001) theory of the Ideal Victim to analyze the children's role as victims. The result showed that most of the children in the court cases were considered credible by the district court. In contrast, the results showed that the defendants who did not receive a conviction lacked corroborating evidence, such as DNA-evidence, witnesses to corroborate their story, messages, photos or video clips. At last, the result showed that when the defendants admitted to the crime, the district court did not argue in quite as much detail about the plaintiff's credibility as in the other court cases.

The premise of this study is the in-depth exploration and investigation of the nature of Ethical Decision Making (EDM) in marketing research. More specifically, this research is concerned with exploring the understanding and the holistic conceptualisation of Ethical Decision Making (EDM) through the investigation of different moral agents in marketing research in the United Kingdom. In particular, marketing research researchers’ (MR researchers) and marketing research respondents’ (MR respondents) ethical judgements and behavioural intentions have been investigated based on two marketing research techniques that generate ethical issues; neuromarketing [NM] and autoethnography [AE], Despite the examination of the two aforementioned moral agents, at the heart of this thesis has been the investigation of MR researchers’ (un)willingness to adopt or practice (i.e. behavioural intentions) these marketing research techniques. This study employed a qualitative design and was initiated on descriptive behavioural ethics, in order to investigate MR researchers’ behavioural intentions, while it has a nonnative purpose towards norm generation in the field. Thus, the Theory of Planned Behaviour’ and the ‘General Theory of Marketing Ethics’ (i.e. H-V model) were applied for the initial theoretical considerations of this thesis. By utilising descriptive and nonnative ethical accounts, this study has found that Ethical Decision Making (EDM) in marketing research is grounded in a social contract ethics foundation of a multidimensional structural functionalistic premise. Within this ethical setting the MR researcher is considering the MR respondent’s decision making processes with regards to norm generation, governed by social consensus, social proof and conformity. This results from a multidimensional interdependent social interaction of the two moral agents. Finally, this thesis concludes that Ethical Decision Making (EDM) in marketing research is not conceptualised in a linear progressive manner, but it consists of numerous constructs that fit with each other in a rather loosely coupled modular manner depicting a rather complex and dynamic system of multilayered factors and multi-dimensional constructs.

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<p>Multiple reference frames are used to interact with our surroundings. When these reference frames are in conflict, processing errors can occur. For tactile stimuli, this conflict is highlighted when the hands are crossed over the midline of the body. In this posture, vibrotactile temporal order judgments (TOJs) presented to the hands are impaired compared to an uncrossed posture. This decrease in temporal processing is known as the crossed-hands deficit. The deficit was explored in depth throughout this thesis. In Chapters 2, 3 and 4 different elements of the crossed-hands deficit were evaluated including its connections to the rod and frame test, individual and sex differences within the TOJ task, as well as the influence of vision and body position. These elements were framed with underlying goal of investigating the root cause of the deficit. The data presented here provided evidence for a conflict model of crossed hands processing. A conflict between the internal and external reference frames produced the deficit in temporal processing when the hands were crossed. The role of the body’s midline in understanding multisensory integration was further considered in Chapter 5 through the rubber hand illusion, which is a visuotactile phenomenon whereby an unseen real hand is mislocalized towards a seen rubber hand. When the real hand, rubber hand, or both were crossed over the midline the illusion did not occur. It was hypothesized that a failure to integrate the tactile information presented to the real hand with the visual rubber hand was responsible for the absence of the illusion. Taken together, the data presented in this thesis contribute to the greater understanding of how reference frame conflicts are resolved, particularly when the conflict occurs across the body’s midline.</p> / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)