Australia is home for immigrants from more than a hundred countries and in total almost a quarter of all Australians are overseas-born. A high proportion of immigrants in a society raises question about socioeconomic equality. The purpose of the thesis is to study the differences in socioeconomic attainments between immigrants and native-born workers. Using data collected from the Issues in Multicultural Australia Survey, conducted in 1988, and the ABS Census of Population and Housing, 1986 and 1991, the study finds that human capital variables such as education, language proficiency and experience largely explain the socioeconomic attainments of Australian-born workers. Among immigrant workers, however, these human capital variables have little or no effect on status attainments. The data also show that the lower socioeconomic status of immigrants may not be due only to the lower investment in human capital. Even second generation NESB immigrants are unable to obtain comparable rewards compared to longer established Australians with similar education and skills. The study indicates that there may be barriers in the Australian labour market operating against NESB immigrants. The study concludes that there are birthplace variations in workers??? socioeconomic attainments. When employers can hire Australian-born workers from a large pool of unemployed workers, immigrant workers will be excluded from employment. Immigrant workers will only be hired if the rewards for these workers are lower compared to Australian-born workers. In situations of high unemployment, especially, immigrant workers will find it difficult to be treated equally in the labour market.

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The aim of my final master thesis is to describe the situation about higher education graduates and their position on the labour market in the Czech Republic. I am especially observing the employment and unemployment situation of people who have completed higher education. Due to the rapid increase in their number, I consider the topic to date. For assessing the whole situation first I characterize the educational situation in the Czech Republic. I focus on the educational structure of the population by age, gender and region. I am using mainly data from the Labour Force Survey, averages for the year 2014. Furthermore I briefly describe higher education students and recent graduates. Finally, I try to link these two parts with part of the labour market. To track the position of educated people like this I use descriptive methods and analytical methods. I deal with the influence of education on time spent on the labour market. Based on the tables of the economic activity I estimate the life expectancy of activity life by educational attainment. For this I am using the educational structure of the population from the Labour Force Survey and data on the number of deaths. In the final analytical part of my work I observe with the help of logistic regression and statistical program SAS the odds ratios...

In the presented thesis the aim is to apply methods of survival analysis to the data from the Labour Force Survey, which are interval-censored. With regard to this type of data, I use specific methods designed to handle them, especially Turnbull estimate, weighted log-rank test and the AFT model. Other objective of the work is the design and application of a methodology for creating a model of unemployment duration, depending on the available factors and its interpretation. Other aim is to evaluate evolution of the probability distribution of unemployment duration and last but not least aim is to create more accurate estimate of the tail using extreme value theory. The main benefits of the thesis can include the creation of a methodology for examining the data from the Labour Force Survey based on standard techniques of survival analysis. Since the data are internationally comparable, the methodology is applicable at the level of European Union countries and several others. Another benefit of this work is estimation of the parameters of the generalized Pareto distribution on interval-censored data and creation and comparison of the models of piecewise connected distribution functions with solution of the connection problem. Work brought empirical results, most important of which is the comparison of results from three different data approaches and specific relationship between selected factors and time to find a job or spell of unemployment.

The economic policy of the Czech Republic is battled with rigidities of labour market, which decline its flexibility. One of this rigidities is inconvenient structure of potential skilled labour force. This thesis is also aimed at its analysis compared with actual needs of labour market. In theoretical part of this thesis are presented characteristics of the Czech educational system and qualification structure of population. The practical part is dedicated to the labour market -- its needs and discrepancies between suply and demand, which are caused by inconvenient qaulification structure of population. The pivot of this thesis is emphasis on lifelong learning, which is getting necessity today. As a result of this thesis are suggestions of possible solutions to shortage of skilled labour force.

This work deals with social consequences of population aging in relation to the employment market. Aging of Czech population is, according to Population Projection by 2050, collected by ČSÚ, inevitable. Growing rate of seniors in the population is accompanied by many negative economical and social consequences. Anticipated demographic progression will be especially charge on the social security system, health service, public finance, but also on the employment market. Considerable weight falls on the field of savings, on the productivity of labour, and on the population status. In the scope of the text, situation of labour demand on the emploers' side and labour supply from elder employers is discused as well. To increase the employment rate of elderly people, the measures stimulating labour supply and labour demand are mentioned. This work also contains the analysis of present status of elderly labour force on the labour market according to age, education and region, and the prediction of corporate behaviour change, due to growing rate of seniors as consumers.

The diploma thesis deals with a population aging and the issue of employment of older people in the Czech Republic. Most developed countries, including the Czech Republic face to the aging of the population. This unfavourable demographic progress leads to social and economic problems. Employment of older people is more and more important. The aim of this work is to assess the employment of older workers in the Czech Republic, to outline its expected development with using forecasts of the Czech Statistical Office and propose possible measures that would contribute to its increase. The results of the analysis show that the population in the Czech Republic is rapidly aging and according to the forecasts it will further continue in future. The possible solution could be to apply principles of the age management. These measures should help to increase the employment rate of older people. There are measures relating to the education, working conditions, flexible employment as well as safety and health care at work. According to the measurement results LEA, interest in the problems of elderly people and their position in the labor market has recently increased and the concept of the age management has became familiar in companies, but still it is not sufficient part of the HR strategies within an organization.

Introduktion: Varje år omkommer cirka 800 000 personer i suicid vilket gör det till en av de ledande dödsorsakerna världen över. Den suicidala problematiken och dödsfallen i suicid skiljer sig mellan män och kvinnor. Män tenderar att vara överrepresenterade världen över när det gäller mortalitet till följd av suicid. Däremot är kvinnor överrepresenterade när det gäller morbiditet. Tidigare studier har visat att hälsan hos både män och kvinnor påverkas av faktorer avseende jämställdhet. Karolinska Institutet (2021) och Svenska Yle (2021) rapporterar att kvinnors suicid ökar i Sverige och Finland. Syftet med denna studie är att undersöka trenderna i suicidincidens under perioden 1990 – 2019 hos män och kvinnor i länderna Norge, Danmark, Finland och Sverige. Vidare är syftet att undersöka förhållandet i suicidincidens mellan män och kvinnor samt vilka associationer det finns mellan suicidincidensen i dessa länder och variablerna arbetslöshet, arbete och utbildning. Detta för att få kunskap om vilka faktorer som påverkar suicidincidensen.  Metod: Studien genomförs som en kvantitativ nordisk komparativ epidemiologisk studie med ett postpositivistiskt förhållningssätt och en abduktiv forskningsansats. Vidare har tidsserieanalyser med simpelt glidande medelvärde tillämpats som metod för att undersöka trenderna i suicidincidens inom respektive kön och land samt förhållandet i suicidincidens mellan könen. Pearson’s r korrelationstest har använts för att undersöka korrelationerna mellan de oberoende variablerna arbetslöshet, arbete och utbildning och den beroende variabeln suicidincidens. Simpel och multipel linjär regressionsanalys har använts för att undersöka associationerna mellan dessa variabler. De oberoende variablerna för respektive land och kön har testats mot suicidincidensen för samma land och mot samma kön.  Resultat: Resultatet ger ingen tydlig bild av hur variablerna arbetslöshet, arbete och utbildning påverkar suicidincidensen i de olika länderna och det är inte heller möjligt att göra några generaliseringar. Pearson’s r korrelationstest tyder på att det förekommer korrelationer mellan de oberoende variablerna arbetslöshet, arbete och den beroende variabeln suicidincidens. Resultatet varierar dock kopplat till olika grupper och olika perioder.  De statistiskt signifikanta simpla regressionsanalyserna tyder på att uppåtgående trender i arbetslöshet och utbildning förutspår uppåtgående trender i suicidincidensen. De simpla regressionsanalyserna tyder också på att uppåtgående trender i arbete förutspår nedåtgående trender i suicidincidensen, förutom i grupper kvinnor i Norge under perioden 1990 – 2019 och 1990 – 2001 där uppåtgående trender i arbete förutspår uppåtgående trender i suicidincidensen. De statistiskt signifikanta multipla regressionsanalyserna tyder på att uppåtgående trender i arbetslöshet och arbete förutspår uppåtgående trender i suicidincidensen. De multipla regressionsanalyserna avseende utbildning tyder på att uppåtgående trender förutspår nedåtgående trender i suicidincidensen, förutom i gruppen kvinnor i Sverige där uppåtgående trender i utbildning förutspår uppåtgående trender i suicidincidensen. I både de simpla och multipla regressionsanalyserna varierar resultatet i olika grupper och under olika perioder. Resultatet visar också att suicidincidensen har minskat under perioden 1990 – 2001 i samtliga länder men att det under perioden 2002 – 2019 ökat i länderna Norge och Sverige och att förhållandet i suicidincidens mellan män och kvinnor varierar i olika länder under olika perioder.  Konklusion: Studiens huvudfynd är att suicidincidensen visar nedåtgående trender inom båda könen i Norge, Danmark, Finland och Sverige under perioden 1990 – 2001. Under perioden 2002 – 2019 visar suicidincidensen däremot uppåtgående trender i länderna Norge och Sverige och det är framförallt den kvinnliga suicidincidensen som ökar under denna period. Studien visar att förhållandet i suicidincidens mellan män och kvinnor minskar i Finland och Norge under perioden 1990 – 2001 och i Norge, Sverige och Danmark under perioden 2002 – 2019. Det finns en association mellan arbetslöshet, arbete och utbildning samt suicidincidens, men denna association varierar inom olika länder, mellan olika kön och under olika perioder.  Studien visar att suicid är ett komplext fenomen som inte kan förstås genom att enbart undersöka enskilda faktorer eller variabler. För att det ska vara möjligt att nå en förståelse för det suicidala perspektivet behöver ett helhetsperspektiv antas. Endast då kan ett lyckat preventivt arbete nås. Vidare finns det flera olika teorier som kan användas för att förstå suicidproblematiken. / Introduction: Every year, about 800,000 people perishes due to suicide, making it one of the leading causes of death in the world. The suicidal behavior and deaths due to suicide differs between men and women. Men tend to be overrepresented worldwide in terms of mortality as a result of suicide. However, women are overrepresented in terms of morbidity. Previous studies have shown that the health of both men and women is affected by factors regarding gender equality. Karolinska Institutet (2021) and Svenska Yle (2021) report that women who perishes due to suicide are increasing in Sweden and Finland. The purpose of this study is to investigate the trends in suicide incidence during the period 1990 – 2019 in men and women in the countries Norway, Denmark, Finland and Sweden. Furthermore, the purpose is to investigate the relationship in suicide incidence between men and women, as well as which associations there are between suicide incidence in these countries and the variables unemployment, labour force and education. This is done to gain knowledge about which factors that affect the suicide incidence.  Methods: The study is conducted as a quantitative Nordic comparative epidemiological study with a post-positivist approach and an abductive research approach. Furthermore, time series analysis with a simple moving average have been applied as a method for examining the trends in suicide incidence within each gender and country, as well as the gender ratio in suicide incidence between the sexes. Pearson's r correlation test has been used to examine the correlations between the independent variables unemployment, labour force and education and the dependent variable suicide incidence. Simple and multiple linear regression analysis have been used to investigate the associations between these variables. The independent variables for each country and gender have been tested against the suicide incidence for the same country and against the same sex.  Results: The results do not provide a clear picture of how the variables unemployment, labour force, and education affect the suicide incidence in the different countries, nor is it possible to make any generalizations. Pearson's r correlation test indicates that there are correlations between the independent variables unemployment, labour force and the dependent variable suicide incidence. However, the result differs in relation to different groups and during different periods.  The statistically significant simple regression analysis indicates that upward trends in unemployment and education predict upward trends in suicide rate. The simple regression analysis also indicates that upward trends in labour force predict downward trends in suicide incidence, except in the group women in Norway during the period 1990 – 2019 and 1990 – 2001 where upward trends in labour force predict upward trends in suicide incidence. The statistically significant multiple regression analysis indicates that upward trends in unemployment and labour force predict upward trends in suicide incidence. The multiple regression analysis regarding education indicate that upward trends predict downward trends in suicide incidence, except in the group of women in Sweden where upward trends in education predict upward trends in suicide incidence. In both the simple and multiple regression analysis, the results vary in different groups and during different periods. The results also show that the suicide incidence has decreased during the period 1990 - 2001 in all countries, that it has increased in Norway and Sweden during the period 2002 - 2019 and that the differences in suicide incidence between men and women varies in different countries during different periods.  Conclusions: The main finding of the study is that the suicide incidence shows downward trends in both sexes in Norway, Denmark, Finland and Sweden during the period 1990 – 2001. During the period 2002 – 2019, the suicide incidence shows upward trends in the countries Norway and Sweden and it is mainly the female suicide incidence that increases during this period. The study shows that the ratio of suicide incidence between men and women decreases in Finland and Norway during the period 1990 – 2001 and in Norway, Sweden and Denmark during the period 2002 – 2019. There is an association between unemployment, labour force and education and suicide incidence, but this association varies within different countries, between different genders and during different periods.  The study shows that suicide is a complex phenomenon that can not be understood by merely examining individual factors or variables. In order for it to be possible to reach an understanding of the suicidal behavior, a holistic perspective needs to be adopted. Only then can successful preventive work be achieved. Furthermore, there are several different theories that can be used to understand the suicide problem.

This study deals with the impact of industrialisation and urbanisation on the living conditions of aged men and women. By studying labour force participation, savings and pensions, the role of the family, and the extent of dependency of aged men and women from a gender and class perspective, continuities and changes between pre-industrial and industrial times are examined. The main focus is placed on the situation of elderly persons living in the town of Sundsvall between 1830 and 1930. This town became the commercial centre of one of the largest saw-mill districts in the world at the end of the nineteenth century. The residence patterns of old men and women in Sundsvall are also compared with those in two other Swedish industrialised urban areas; the capital Stockholm and the textile centre Norrköping. According to modernisation theorists, industrialisation and urbanisation led to an increase in dependency in old age, due to weakening family ties and unemployment. This study shows the complexity of the issue. It is true that some sources reveal a declining proportion of men participating in the labour force at the very end of the period of observation, but this was primarily due to the introduction of the national pension system in 1914. On the other hand, other records show a stability or even an increasing proportion of elderly men and women in the labour market. By contrast with previous studies of the residence patterns of aged persons, this dissertation shows a very high percentage of elderly women living alone in all three urban areas selected for study. However, this was not solely a sign of isolation, since the vast majority of those elderly living in households of their own had children residing in the vicinity. Furthermore, many old men and women shared households with their children, although this pattern was less common among the working class. The role of off-spring appears to have been important both in pre-industrial and industrial times. The residence patterns of the urban elderly were probably influenced by traditional rural living arrangements, to the extent that old couples and their married children often lived close to each other but usually maintained households of their own. Old parents and their adult children might have preferred to live in separate households instead of crowding in with each other. The unmarried elderly were probably most affected by the transformations taking place at the end of the nineteenth century. A considerable number of them migrated late in life, leaving all their relatives behind. Therefore, they became highly vulnerable. Unmarried men tended to be more exposed to the dangers of urban life. They probably experienced tougher working conditions, had weaker social networks, and could not manage on their own to the same extent as women. Therefore, a larger propor-tion of men than women ended up in the workhouse. / digitalisering@umu