Bronchiolitis obliterans syndrome (BOS), a form of chronic lung allograft dysfunction, represents a major cause of mortality after lung transplantation. This disease is associated with a progressive fibro-obliteration of small airways (known as obliterative bronchiolitis) which leads to respiratory impairment and graft failure. The mechanisms behind airway occlusion remain unclear, and no curative treatment is available at the moment. Myofibroblasts are considered central effectors in this fibrotic process, but their origin is controversial. They can arise either from donor cells (resident fibroblasts and epithelial cells) or recipient cells (bone marrow-derived cells).The purpose of this project was to identify the precursors of mesenchymal cells responsible for post-transplant airway fibro-obliteration. Lineage-tracing tools were used to track or deplete potential sources of myofibroblasts in the heterotopic tracheal transplantation model, which produces a surrogate of obliterans bronchiolitis. Confocal analysis showed that myofibroblasts in the allografts were mostly recipient-derived, even though immunosuppression with tacrolimus induced a mild increase of donor-derived myofibroblasts. Occasional epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition was detected, but only in tacrolimus-treated recipients. On the other hand, fate-mapping techniques demonstrated that myeloid cells gave rise to the majority of mesenchymal cells in occluded airways. Accordingly, specific ablation of Cx3cR1+ mononuclear phagocytes significantly decreased allografts fibrosis. In parallel, single-cell RNA-sequencing unveiled surprising similarities between myeloid-derived cells (i.e. fibrocytes and macrophages) from the allografts and both murine and human samples of pulmonary fibrosis. Finally, analysis of BOS lesions from transplanted patients allowed us to translate our results to a clinical level. Indeed, confocal microscopy revealed that myofibroblasts expressing the macrophage marker CD68 were increased in BOS explants when compared to controls, and their numbers seemed correlated with the intensity of fibrosis.Collectively, these findings indicate that recipient mononuclear phagocyte system constitutes a clinically relevant source of mesenchymal cells infiltrating the airways after allogeneic transplantation. Therefore, therapies targeting migration and differentiation of mononuclear phagocytes and fibrocytes could prevent fibrotic remodelling of small airways and improve long-term outcomes after lung transplantation. / La bronchiolite oblitérante (bronchiolitis obliterans syndrome, BOS), une forme de dysfonction chronique du greffon, représente une des majeures causes de mortalité après transplantation pulmonaire. Cette pathologie est associée à une oblitération progressive et irréversible des petites voies aériennes par de la fibrose, qui mène à une perte de fonction respiratoire jusqu’à la défaillance du greffon. Les mécanismes impliqués dans la fibroproliferation ne sont pas encore bien compris, et il n’existe pas de traitement efficace de la BOS à l’heure actuelle. Les myofibroblastes joueraient un rôle majeur dans le développement de la fibrose, mais leur origine reste controversée. Ils pourraient dériver des cellules du donneur (fibroblastes in situ ou cellules épithéliales) ou bien du receveur (à partir de la moelle osseuse). L’objectif de cette étude était d’identifier les précurseurs des cellules mésenchymateuses responsables de l’obstruction des voies aériennes après transplantation allogénique. Nous avons utilisé des techniques de lineage tracing pour identifier les sources potentielles de myofibroblastes dans un modèle de transplantation hétérotopique de trachée, lequel permet d’obtenir une maladie fibro-oblitérante du greffon qui simule histologiquement la bronchiolite oblitérante. Les analyses par microscopie confocale ont montré que les cellules du receveur constituent la source principale de myofibroblastes dans les allogreffons, malgré une faible augmentation de la proportion de cellules mésenchymateuses dérivées du donneur lors du traitement immunosuppresseur. En plus, une minime fraction de myofibroblastes d’origine épithéliales a également été détectée, mais seulement dans les greffons traités par tacrolimus. D’autre part, nous avons établi que la lignée myéloïde produit la plupart des cellules mésenchymateuses détectés dans les voies aériennes oblitérées. Par ailleurs, la délétion spécifique de phagocytes mononucléaires Cx3cR1+ était associée avec une diminution significative du nombre de myofibroblastes et de la fibrose endoluminale dans les allogreffons. En parallèle, l’utilisation des techniques de séquençage en single cell a permis de révéler des ressemblances inattendues entre des populations de cellules d’origine myéloïdes (macrophages et fibrocytes) retrouvés dans les greffons et celles impliqués dans le développement de la fibrose pulmonaire chez l’homme et la souris. In fine, l’analyse par microscopie confocale des lésions pulmonaires de patients atteints de BOS nous a permis de transposer en clinique nos résultats expérimentaux. En effet, nous avons observé que la fraction de myofibroblastes positifs pour le CD68, un marqueur typiquement exprimé par les macrophages, était significativement augmentée dans les greffons avec bronchiolite oblitérante par rapport aux contrôles. De plus, leur nombre était corrélé avec la sévérité de la fibrose. L’ensemble de ces résultats indique que le système phagocytaire mononuclée constitue une source significative de cellules mésenchymateuses et contribue à la fibro-oblitération des voies aériennes après transplantation. L’utilisation de thérapies ciblant la migration et la différenciation des phagocytes mononuclées et des fibrocytes pourrait bloquer la destruction du greffon pulmonaire et améliorer la survie à long terme des patients transplantés. / Doctorat en Sciences médicales (Médecine) / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

Vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) accumulation is a hallmark of atherosclerosis and vascular injury. However, fundamental aspects of proliferation and the phenotypic changes within individual VSMCs, which underlie vascular disease remain unresolved. In particular, it is not known if all VSMCs proliferate and display plasticity, or whether individual cells can switch to multiple phenotypes. To assess whether proliferation and plasticity in disease is a general characteristic of VSMCs or a feature of a subset of cells, multi-colour lineage labelling is used to demonstrate that VSMCs in injury-induced neointimal lesions and in atherosclerotic plaques are oligo-clonal, derived from few expanding cells, within mice. Lineage tracing also revealed that the progeny of individual VSMCs contribute to both alpha Smooth muscle actin (aSma)-positive fibrous cap and Mac-3-expressing macrophage-like plaque core cells. Co-staining for phenotypic markers further identified a double-positive aSma+ Mac3+ cell population, which is specific to VSMC-derived plaque cells. In contrast, VSMC-derived cells generating the neointima after vascular injury generally retained expression of VSMC markers and upregulation of Mac3 was less pronounced. Monochromatic regions in atherosclerotic plaques and injury-induced neointima did not contain VSMC-derived cells expressing a different fluorescent reporter protein, suggesting that proliferation-independent VSMC migration does not make a major contribution to VSMC accumulation in vascular disease. Similarly, VSMC proliferation was examined in an Angiotensin II perfusion model of aortic aneurysm in mice, oligo-clonal proliferation was observed in remodelling regions of the vasculature, however phenotypic changes were observed in a large proportion of VSMCs, suggesting that the majority of VSMCs have some potential to modulate their phenotype. To understand the mechanisms behind the inherent VSMC heterogeneity and observed functionality, the single cell transcriptomic techniques Smart-seq2 and the Chromium 10X system were optimized for use on VSMCs. The work within this thesis suggests that extensive proliferation of a low proportion of highly plastic VSMCs results in the observed VSMC accumulation after injury, and the atherosclerotic and aortic aneurysm models of cardiovascular disease.

Les cellules souches assurent le développement des tissus, leur renouvellement ainsique leur réparation suite à des blessures. L’une des questions clés du domaine de labiologie des cellules souches est l’identification des différents types cellulaires qu’unecellule souche peut donner. Les cellules souches peuvent être multipotentes, c’est-à-direcapables de donner naissance à plusieurs types cellulaires différents, ou unipotentes,c’est-à-dire qu’elles ne peuvent alors se différencier qu’en un seul type cellulaire. Lesexpériences de traçage cellulaire sont réalisées quotidiennement en biologie dudéveloppement et en biologie des cellules souches afin d’évaluer le devenir des cellulessouches in vivo. Cependant, il n’existe à ce jour aucune méthode rigoureuse permettantd’interpréter les résultats d’expériences de traçage cellulaire de manière non ambigüe etde déterminer la multipotence ou l’unipotence des cellules souches avec grande précisionet de manière statistiquement fiable. Nous avons développé de nouvelles méthodes afind’évaluer avec une très grande précision le caractère unipotent ou multipotent descellules souches du sein et de la prostate. Ces nouvelles découvertes démontrent demanière non ambigüe que la prostate provient de cellules souches multipotentes, alorsque seules des cellules souches unipotentes contribuent au développement et auremodelage de la glande mammaire au stade adulte. D’autre part, nous montrons que cesont des cellules souches multipotentes qui sont responsables des phases précoces dudéveloppement embryonnaire de la glande mammaire, et que ces cellules deviennentunipotentes peu avant la naissance. Nous avons étudié les mécanismes régulant le passagede l’état multipotent à l’état unipotent et démontrons que le facteur de transcription p63joue un rôle crucial dans la restriction du potentiel de différenciation des cellules souchesmammaires embryonnaires. Enfin, nous montrons que les cellules souches mammairesadultes, normalement unipotentes, peuvent redevenir multipotentes en conditionsphysiopathologiques telles que l’ablation spécifique d’une lignée cellulaire mammaire ouau cours de l’initiation tumorale. Nous essayons donc de comprendre de manière généraleles mécanismes impliqués dans le passage de l’état unipotent à l’état multipotent descellules souches mammaires adultes, et d’élucider les similarités existant entre lesdifférentes conditions dans lesquelles des cellules souches mammaires multipotentessont observées. / Doctorat en Sciences biomédicales et pharmaceutiques (Médecine) / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

Skin cancers are very common in humans. The two most frequent epithelial skin cancers are the basal cell carcinoma (BCC) and the squamous cell carcinoma (SCC). For the vast majority of cancers, the cell at the origin of tumour initiation is still unknown and assumptions concerning their origin rely mainly on morphological and immunohistochemical studies. Recently, adult stem cells (SCs) have been suggested to be at the origin of tumour initiation based on their long term self-renewing capacities. According to these, two important questions arise; do epithelial skin cancers arise from mutations in a specific cell lineage of the epidermis? And are the stem cells more competent to initiate tumors than committed cells?<p>BCCs result from aberrant activation of HH signaling and several mouse models carrying mutations in HH signaling genes are capable to form tumors resembling to human BCCs. <p>To identify the cell lineage at the origin of BCC and to investigate the role of stem cells in tumor initiation, we followed a genetic approach where we conditionally expressed SmoM2 oncogene (a constitutively active Smoothened mutant) in distinct skin epidermal compartments including SCs. Targeting basal epidermis cells, showed that only SmoM2-clones in the inter follicular epidermis (IFE) and the infundibulum can progress into BCC, whereas SmoM2 expression in Bulge SCs or in matrix transit amplifying progenitor cells never leads to BCC formation. Progressively after SmoM2 expression, tumor-initiating cells lose their normal differentiation to adopt a hair placode-like shape and markers, demonstrating that biochemical and morphological tumour features can be misleading in extrapolating their cellular origin.<p><p>The molecular changes occurring in tumor initiating cells and the mechanisms regulating the early steps of cancer development are poorly characterized for the majority of tumors. To address these questions in BCC, we took advantage of our ability to isolate SmoM2 expressing cells at different stages of tumor initiation and progression. Transcriptional profiling of SmoM2-basal IFE cells isolated one week (normal histology) and 4 weeks (dysplastic lesion), suggests that adult IFE cells undergo a reprogramming into embryonic hair follicle (EHFP) like fate. In addition, we showed that Wnt/β-catenin signaling is essential for BCC initiating cell reprogramming into EHFP like fate and for tumor initiation in a cell autonomous manner. Finally, we show that EHFP reprogramming occurs also in human BCCs in addition to the presence of a similar canonical Wnt activation signature to the one revealed in the SmoM2-BCC mouse model.<p><p>SCC is the second most frequent skin cancers after BCC and mutations in p53 and Ras genes has been suggested to be potentially the primary events in this tumour. SCCs present signs of squamous differentiation, suggesting that SCCs may originate from the inter follicular epidermis (IFE). To identify the cell lineage at the origin of SCC and the role of the hair follicle SCs in tumor initiation, we use a genetic tools driving oncogenic KRas (KRasG12D) expression at physiological levels in different epidermal compartments. <p>Targeting KRasG12D expression in bulge SCs and their progeny or in IFE results in benign tumor development with no sign of malignant transformation. In contrast, KRasG12D expression in HF Transit amplifying (TA) matrix cells do not promotes any macroscopic tumors or microscopic defects in the epidermis. Interestingly, papillomas arising from the IFE express follicular markers such as CD34 and K17, indicating that the expression of HF markers by tumor cells does not necessarily reflect their cellular origin. Using a combination of deletion of both p53 alleles together with KRasG12D expression, we showed that bulge SCs and/or their progeny but not HF matrix TA cells, promote SCC formation, suggesting that additional genetic hits such as p53 are required to promote full-blown invasive skin SCC. <p><p>In summary, our work demonstrated the non-follicular origin of BCC resulting from Smo mutation, as well as the implication of the IFE progenitors in tumor initiation. We also revealed the progressive reprogramming of BCC initiating cells towards an EHFP-like fate and the key role of Wnt/β-catenin pathway in this process. In contrast, we showed the competence of several epidermal lineages to initiate benign tumors upon expression of KRasG12D oncogene at physiological levels. We also demonstrated that lineage -specific markers expression within tumor cells does not necessarily reflect their cellular origin. Finally, we demonstrated the requirement of additional hits, such as P53 loss, to promote malignant progression in the context of oncogenic Ras.<p> / Doctorat en Sciences biomédicales et pharmaceutiques / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

(v anglickém jazyce) Development of tooth primordia in mice is an important model for study of odontogenesis. Several dental rudiments develop during the mouse embryogenesis. These structures develop in functional teeth in their phylogenetically older relatives. Similarly, we can initiate growth of teeth from these germs in some mutant mice. In my diploma thesis we have focused on the importance of rudimentary structures with odontogenic potential in postnatal individuals. As a model of development, we have chosen a cell population originating from rudimentary primordia MS (mesial segment) that develops in diastema of the lower jaw during the embryonic day 12.5. Using the inducible Cre-lox technology we have marked the cells which are part of the signal domain of primordia at this time. As a marker of these cells we have used gene Shh. We have found out that these cells persist prenataly and also postnatally. Further we have isolated this cell area and we have tested it using a variety of methods. We have shown that in the cells of postnatal individual are expressed markers of stem cells (Sox2, Bmi1, Gli1) and also genes for major enamel matrix structural proteins: ameloblastin and amelogenin. The same stem cell markers are also expressed in vitro culture of the isolated cells. This cell population...

Les péricytes sont fortement suspectés de jouer un rôle déterminant dans la physiopathologie de l’hypertension artérielle pulmonaire (HTAP), non seulement en raison de leur position et distribution, de leur rôle dans l'homéostasie vasculaire, de leur plasticité et spécificité tissulaire, mais aussi vu leur nette augmentation en nombre autour des artérioles pulmonaires remodelées. Cependant, les mécanismes impliqués dans leur accumulation autour des vaisseaux remodelés ainsi que leur importance dans la mise en place et la progression de l’HTAP restent encore incompris. De plus, nous ne savons pas si les péricytes présentent ou non des anomalies phénotypiques dans l’HTAP.C’est pourquoi ces travaux de doctorat ont visé à : 1) Identifier les possibles anomalies intrinsèques des péricytes provenant de patients HTAP ; 2) Préciser rôle de la voie de signalisation CXCL12/CXCR4/CXCR7 dans l’augmentation de la couverture péricytaire et tester des inhibiteurs de cette voie dans des modèles précliniques d’hypertension pulmonaire (HP) ; 3) Etudier l’impact du pouvoir mésenchymateux des péricytes dans le remodelage vasculaire pulmonaire associé à l’HTAP.Nos données ont permis d’une part de démontrer que les péricytes provenant de patients HTAP possédent des défauts intrinsèques dans les mécanismes de prolifération, de migration et de différenciation cellulaire et que la voie du CXCL12 contribue fortement à l’augmentation anormale de la couverture péricytaire autour des vaisseaux remodelés de patients HTAP. D’autre part, via leur capacité à se différencier en cellules contractiles, nous avons pu démontrer que les péricytes contribuaient directement au remodelage vasculaire pulmonaire.En conclusion, notre étude montre ainsi l’importance du rôle des péricytes pulmonaires dans la progression de l’hypertension artérielle pulmonaire humaine et expérimentale. / Pericytes (PCs) are strongly suspected to play a determining role in the pathophysiology of pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH), because of their position and distribution, role in vascular homeostasis, versatility and tissue-specificity, but also because they accumulate around remodeled pulmonary arterioles in PAH. However, the underlying mechanisms and their dynamic role in PAH are still unknown. Furthermore, we do not know whether pulmonary PCs are phenotypically and functionally altered in PAH. To answer these questions, our objective were: 1) To examine the phenotypic and functional characteristics of human pulmonary PCs derived from control and PAH patients; 2) To precise the role of the intrinsic abnormalities in the altered phenotype of pulmonary PCs in PAH; 3) To study the dynamic role(s) of pulmonary PCs in preclinical PAH models, especially through modulation of the CXCL12/CXCR4/CXCR7 signaling pathway. Taken together, our findings identify for the first time phenotypic and functional abnormalities of pulmonary PCs in PAH with pathogenetic significance since they increased directly their proliferation, migration and capacity to differentiate in smooth muscle-like cells.

Taste buds are chemosensory endorgans embedded in the oral epithelium composed of cells that undergo continuous replacement. Mature taste cells live on average 10-14 days and are replaced by new cells when they die. However, the mechanism by which taste cells are produced and integrated into the taste bud as mature taste cells remains unknown. Previous studies approached this issue from either cell cycle gene expression properties or lineage tracing of precursor cells. In our study, we apply a new fate mapping technique that combines these two ideas. This technique, Mosaic Analysis with Double Markers, allows for simultaneous gene knockout and subsequent tracking of single cells. This allows us to study the potency of precursor cells supplying the taste bud while analyzing how gene function regulates the maturation pathway these taste cells take. The following experiments illustrate the initial phase of this investigation.

In zebrafish, transgenic labeling approaches, robust regenerative responses and excellent in vivo imaging conditions enable precise characterization of immune cell behavior in response to injury. Here, we monitored osteoblast-immune cell interactions in bone, a tissue which is particularly difficult to in vivo image in tetrapod species. Ablation of individual osteoblasts leads to recruitment of neutrophils and macrophages in varying numbers, depending on the extent of the initial insult, and initiates generation of cathepsin K+ osteoclasts from macrophages. Osteoblast ablation triggers the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and reactive oxygen species, which are needed for successful macrophage recruitment. Excess glucocorticoid signaling as it occurs during the stress response inhibits macrophage recruitment, maximum speed and changes the macrophage phenotype. Although osteoblast loss is compensated for within a day by contribution of committed osteoblasts, macrophages continue to populate the region. Their presence is required for osteoblasts to fill the lesion site. Our model enables visualization of bone repair after microlesions at single-cell resolution and demonstrates a pro-osteogenic function of tissue-resident macrophages in non-mammalian vertebrates.

The zebrafish has emerged as an important genetic model system for the study of vertebrate development. However, while genetics is a powerful tool for the study of early gene functions, the approach is more limited when it comes to understanding later functions of genes that have essential roles in early embryogenesis. There is thus a need to manipulate gene expression at different times, and ideally only in some regions of the developing embryo. Methods for conditional gene regulation have been established in Drosophila, C.elegans and the mouse, utilizing conditional gene activation systems such as the Gal4-UAS system (fly) and the cre/lox recombination system (mouse). While these tools are also being developed in zebrafish, the accessibility of the zebrafish embryo makes other approaches both possible and desirable. We have taken advantage of a heat-shock inducible system that uses the hsp70 promoter that is activated by cellular stress, such as heat. Having established that this global heat shock method allows temporal control of gene expression, we aimed to spatially control gene expression by applying controlled thermal heat to only a small region of the embryo. This would allow us to determine cell- and tissue-autonomous roles for developmentally important genes in an embryo with otherwise normal gene function. We have now developed a device that uses a laser to heat a defined region of the embryo, and thus activate the hsp70 promoter only in restricted regions of the embryo. The output of a 75 mW red laser pointer was focused into the 50 µm diameter core of an optical fiber, whose cleaved and coated end was used to heat, and thus induce, gene expression in a defined area. We have established conditions that allow controlled heating and trans-gene activation in small regions of the embryo without inducing cell death. This new tool will allow us to study the cell-autonomous roles of embryonic signaling molecules in cell differentiation, proliferation, and survival in a variety of tissues and at different times.

Background & Aims: Despite advances in surgical care and chemotherapeutic regimens, the five-year survival rate for Stage IV Hepatoblastoma (HB), the predominant pediatric liver tumor, remains at 27%. YAP1 and β-Catenin co-activation occurs in 80% of children’s HB; however, a lack of conditional genetic models precludes exploration of tumor maintenance and therapeutic targets. Thus, the clinical need for a targeted therapy remains unmet. Given the predominance of YAP1 and β-catenin activation in children’s tumors, I sought to evaluate YAP1 as a therapeutic target in HB. Approach & Results: Herein, I engineered the first conditional murine model of HB using hydrodynamic injection to deliver transposon plasmids encoding inducible YAP1S127A, constitutive β-CateninDelN90, and a luciferase reporter to murine liver. Tumor regression was evaluated using in vivo bioluminescent imaging, and tumor landscape characterized using RNA sequencing, ATAC sequencing and DNA foot-printing. Here I show that YAP1 withdrawal in mice mediates >90% tumor regression with survival for 230+ days. Mechanistically, YAP1 withdrawal promotes apoptosis in a subset of tumor cells and in remaining cells induces a cell fate switch driving therapeutic differentiation of HB tumors into Ki-67 negative “hbHep cells.” hbHep cells have hepatocyte-like morphology and partially restored mature hepatocyte gene expression. YAP1 withdrawal drives formation of hbHeps by modulating liver differentiation transcription factor (TF) occupancy. Indeed, tumor-derived hbHeps, consistent with their reprogrammed transcriptional landscape, regain partial hepatocyte function and can rescue liver damage in mice. Conclusions: YAP1 withdrawal, without modulation of oncogenic β-Catenin, significantly regresses hepatoblastoma, providing the first in vivo data to support YAP1 as a therapeutic target for HB. Modulating YAP1 expression alone is sufficient to drive long-term regression in hepatoblastoma because it promotes cell death in a subset of tumor cells and modulates transcription factor occupancy to reverse the fate of residual tumor cells to mimic functional hepatocytes.