No / Experimental observations of melt temperature profiles and melting performance of extruder screws are reported. A novel temperature sensor consisting of a grid of thermocouple junctions was used to take multiple temperature readings in real time across melt flow in a single screw extruder. Melt pressure in the die and power consumption were also monitored. Three extruder screws at a range of screw speeds were examined for a commercial grade of low density polyethylene. Results showed melt temperature fields at low throughputs to be relatively independent of screw geometry with a flat-shaped temperature profile dominated by conduction. At high throughputs, melting performance and measured temperature fields were highly dependent upon screw geometry. A barrier-flighted screw with Maddock mixer achieved significantly better melting than single flighted screws. Low temperature "shoulder" regions were observed in the temperature profiles of single-flighted screws at high throughput, due to late melting of the solid bed. Stability of the melt flow was also dependent upon screw geometry and the barrier-flighted screw achieving flow with lower variation in melt pressure and temperature. Dimensionless numbers were used to analyze the relative importance of conduction, convection, and viscous shear to the state of the melt at a range of extrusion conditions.

The crystallization and melting behaviors of an ethylene/1-hexene copolymer and series of narrow molecular weight linear polyethylene and poly(ethylene oxide) fractions were studied using a combination of ultra-fast and conventional differential scanning calorimetry, optical microscopy, small angle X-ray scattering, and wide angle X-ray diffraction. In the case of linear polyethylene and poly(ethylene oxide), the zero-entropy production melting temperatures of initial lamellae of isothermally crystallized fractions were analyzed in the context of the non-linear Hoffman-Weeks method. Using the Huggins equation, limiting equilibrium melting temperatures of 141.4 ± 0.8oC and 81.4 ± 1.0oC were estimated for linear polyethylene and poly(ethylene oxide), respectively. The former and the latter are about 4oC lower and 12.5oC higher than these predicted by Flory/Vrij and Buckley/Kovacs, respectively. Accuracy of the non-linear Hoffman-Weeks method was also examined using initial lamellar thickness literature data for a linear polyethylene fraction at different crystallization temperatures. The equilibrium melting temperature obtained by the Gibbs-Thomson approach and the C2 value extracted from the initial lamellar thickness vs. reciprocal of undercooling plot were similar within the limits of experimental error to those obtained here through the non-linear Hoffman-Weeks method. In the next step, the Lauritzen-Hoffman (LH) secondary nucleation theory was modified to account for the effect of stem length fluctuations, tilt angle of the crystallized stems, and temperature dependence of the lateral surface free energy. Analysis of spherulite growth rate and wide angle X-ray diffraction data for 26 linear polyethylene and 5 poly(ethylene oxide) fractions revealed that the undercooling at the regime I/II transition, the equilibrium fold surface free energy, the strength of the stem length fluctuations and the substrate length at the regime I/II transition are independent of chain length. The value of the equilibrium fold surface free energy derived from crystal growth rate data using the modified Lauritzen-Hoffman theory matches that calculated from lamellar thickness and melting data through the Gibbs-Thomson equation for both linear polyethylene and poly(ethylene oxide). Larger spherulitic growth rates for linear polyethylene than for poly(ethylene oxide) at low undercooling is explained by the higher secondary nucleation constant of poly(ethylene oxide). While the apparent friction coefficient of a crystallizing linear polyethylene chain is 2 to 8 times higher than that of a chain undergoing reptation in the melt state, the apparent friction coefficient of a crystallizing poly(ethylene oxide) chain is about two orders of magnitude lower. This observation suggests that segmental mobility on the crystal phase plays a significant role in the crystal growth process. In case of the statistical ethylene/1-hexene copolymer, the fold surface free energies of the copolymer lamellae at the time of crystallization and melting increase with increasing undercooling, approaching the same magnitude at high undercooling. As a result of this temperature dependence, the experimental melting vs. crystallization temperature plot is parallel to the Tm = Tc line and the corresponding Gibbs-Thomson plot is non-linear. This behavior is attributed to the fact that longer ethylene sequences form a chain-folded structure with lower concentration of branch points on the lamellar surface at lower undercooling, while shorter ethylene sequences form lamellar structures at higher undercooling exhibiting a higher concentration of branch points on the lamellar surface. Branch points limit the ability of lamellar structures to relax their kinetic stem-length fluctuations during heating prior to melting. / Ph. D. / Morphology of semi-crystalline polymers is strongly affected by their crystallization conditions. Thermodynamic and kinetic models allow us to understand the crystallization mechanism of a semi-crystalline polymer and relate its crystallization conditions to the final morphology. In this research, we studied the molar mass dependence of the crystallization and melting behaviors of narrow molecular weight distribution linear polyethylene (LPE) and poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO) fractions using a modified Lauritzen-Hoffman (LH) secondary nucleation theory. We have shown that the equilibrium melting temperature of LPE and PEO fractions found from the non-linear Hoffman-Weeks method are within the experimental uncertainty identical with these measured directly for extended chain crystals or derived from a Gibbs-Thomson analysis. The value of the equilibrium fold surface free energy derived from crystal growth rate data using the modified LH theory matches that calculated from lamellar thickness and melting data through the Gibbs-Thomson equation for both LPE and PEO. We reported that the higher segmental mobility of PEO in the crystalline phase leads to significantly lower apparent chain friction coefficients during crystal growth compared to LPE. We also studied the role of short-chain branching in the crystal growth kinetics of ethylene/1-hexene copolymers. We observed that the fold surface free energies during crystallization and during melting are both function of the undercooling while the ratio of the former to the latter decreases with increasing undercooling. We proposed that this behavior may be related to the concentration of short-chain branches at the surface of the lamellae, where higher concentration leads to lower relaxation.

No / Oxidized low-density lipoprotein (oxLDL) promotes unregulated platelet activation in dyslipidemic disorders. Although oxLDL stimulates activatory signaling, it is unclear how these events drive accelerated thrombosis. Here, we describe a mechanism for oxLDL-mediated platelet hyperactivity that requires generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Under arterial flow, oxLDL triggered sustained generation of platelet intracellular ROS, which was blocked by CD36 inhibitors, mimicked by CD36-specific oxidized phospholipids, and ablated in CD36(-/-) murine platelets. oxLDL-induced ROS generation was blocked by the reduced NAD phosphate oxidase 2 (NOX2) inhibitor, gp91ds-tat, and absent in NOX2(-/-) mice. The synthesis of ROS by oxLDL/CD36 required Src-family kinases and protein kinase C (PKC)-dependent phosphorylation and activation of NOX2. In functional assays, oxLDL abolished guanosine 3',5'-cyclic monophosphate (cGMP)-mediated signaling and inhibited platelet aggregation and arrest under flow. This was prevented by either pharmacologic inhibition of NOX2 in human platelets or genetic ablation of NOX2 in murine platelets. Platelets from hyperlipidemic mice were also found to have a diminished sensitivity to cGMP when tested ex vivo, a phenotype that was corrected by infusion of gp91ds-tat into the mice. This study demonstrates that oxLDL and hyperlipidemia stimulate the generation of NOX2-derived ROS through a CD36-PKC pathway and may promote platelet hyperactivity through modulation of cGMP signaling. / the British Heart Foundation (PG/11/37/28884 and PG/13/90/30578) and Heart Research UK (RG2614)

La transplantation d’hépatocytes représente une alternative à la transplantation hépatique pour le traitement de certaines maladies métaboliques dont l’hypercholestérolémie familiale. Les cellules souches embryonnaires (ES) et les cellules souches pluripotentes induites (iPS) humaines représentent de nouvelles sources de cellules hépatiques. Nous avons mis au point une approche de différenciation des cellules souches humaines en cellules hépatiques et généré ainsi des cellules dérivées de cellules iPS de patients atteints d’hypercholestérolémie familiale. / Hepatocyte transplantation represents an alternative to liver for the treatment of metabolic diseases including familial hypercholesterolaemia. Embryonic stem cells (ES) and induced pluripotent stem cells (iPS) represent new sources of hepatic cells. We have developed an approach to differentiate human stem cells into hepatic cells and thus we have generated hepatic cells derived from iPS of familial hypercholesterolaemia patients.

La barrière hémato-encéphalique (BHE) protège le système nerveux central (SNC) des fluctuations plasmatiques des molécules endogènes, mais aussi exogènes, et notamment des molécules à potentiel thérapeutique. L’imperméabilité de la BHE est compensée par la présence de mécanismes qui assurent le transport transendothélial des nutriments nécessaires au tissu nerveux, parmi lesquels la transcytose relayée par différents récepteurs. Dans le but d’améliorer le transfert d’agents thérapeutiques à travers la BHE, nous développons des « vecteurs » qui se lient à certains de ces récepteurs. Au cours de notre thèse, nous avons développé et optimisé des modèles in vitro de BHE et barrière sang-moelle épinière (BSME) syngéniques de rats et souris, basés sur la co-culture de cellules endothéliales microvasculaires (CEMs) cérébrales (CEMCs) ou spinales (CEMSs) et d'astrocytes. Parmi les récepteurs étudiés, nous montrons que le LDLR est exprimé à la membrane plasmique apicale des CEMCs et qu’il est impliqué dans la transcytose du LDL tout en évitant le compartiment lysosomal, confirmant l’intérêt de son ciblage dans nos approches. Nous montrons que nos vecteurs, conjugués à une molécule organique ou à un cargo protéique, sont endocytés par les CEMCs de façon LDLR-dépendante, évitent le compartiment lysosomal et franchissent la monocouche de CEMCs. Nous avons également mis en place des modèles in vitro de BHE et BSME enflammés, sachant que l’inflammation des CEMs est associée à de nombreuses pathologies du SNC. Ces modèles seront utiles pour évaluer des stratégies de vectorisation ciblant préférentiellement les structures du SNC en situation pathologique. / The blood-brain barrier (BBB) protects the central nervous system (CNS) from plasma fluctuations of endogenous, but also exogenous molecules, including therapeutic molecules. The BBB’s restrictive properties are compensated by the presence of different mechanisms that provide transport of nutrients across the BBB, including transcytosis of endogenous ligands mediated by receptors. Our objective is to improve drug delivery across the BBB and we developed “vectors” that target different recpetors. During our thesis we developed and optimized cellular tools and approaches, in particular syngeneic in vitro models of the BBB and blood-spinal cord barrier (BSCB) from both rat and mouse, based on the co-culture of brain (BMECs) or spinal cord (SCMECs) microvascular endothelial cells (MECs) and astrocytes. Among the receptors we studied, we show that the LDL receptor (LDLR) is expressed at the apical plasma membrane of BMECs and confirmed that it is involved in transcytosis of LDL through the vesicular compartment, while avoiding the lysosomal compartment, further establishing its interest as a target receptor. We show that our vectors conjugated to an organic molecule or to a protein cargo are endocytosed by BMECs in a LDLR-dependent manner, avoid the lysosomal compartment and cross the BMEC monolayers. Finally, we developed BBB and BSCB in vitro models in inflammatory conditions, considering that MECs inflammation is associated with many CNS lesions and pathologies. These models will be useful to better understand the inflammatory processes of CNS endothelial cells and to evaluate vectorization strategies preferentially targeting CNS structures in pathological condition.

Proprotein Convertase Subtilisin/Kexin 9 (PCSK9) is the ninth member of the Ca+2-dependent mammalian proprotein convertase super family of serine endoproteases that is structurally related to the bacterial subtilisin and yeast kexin enzymes. It plays a critical role in the regulation of lipid metabolism and cholesterol homeostasis by binding to and degrading low-density lipoprotein-receptor (LDL-R) which is responsible for the clearance of circulatory LDL-cholesterol from the blood. Owing to this functional property, there is plenty of research interest in the development of functional inhibitors of PCSK9 which may find important biochemical applications as therapeutic agents for lowering plasma LDL-cholesterol. The catalytic domain of PCSK9 binds to the EGF-A domain of LDL-R on the cell surface to form a stable complex and re-routes the receptor from its normal endosomal recycling pathway to the lysosomal compartments leading to its degradation. Owing to these findings, we propose that selected peptides from PCSK9 catalytic domain, particularly its disulphide (S-S) bridged loop1 323-358 and loop2 365-385, are likely to exhibit strong affinity towards the EGF-A domain of LDL-R. Several regular peptides along with corresponding all- dextro and retro-inverse peptides as well as the gain-of-function mutant variants were designed and tested for their regulatory effects towards LDL-R expression and PCSK9-binding in human hepatic HepG2 and mouse hepatic Hepa1c1c7 cells. Our data indicated that disulfide bridged loop1-hPCSK9323-358 and its H357 mutant as well as two short loop2-hPCSK9372-380 and its Y374 mutant peptides modestly promote the LDL-R protein levels. Our study concludes that specific peptides from the PCSK9 catalytic domain can regulate LDL-R and may be useful for development of novel class of therapeutic agents for cholesterol regulation.

No description available.

Les granulocytes de faible densité (LDGs) sont un sous-type de neutrophiles mis en évidence initialement dans le sang de patients atteints de différentes maladies telles que le lupus érythémateux systémique ou le psoriasis. Cependant, des études rapportent également leur présence chez des individus sains. On connait mal à ce jour les caractéristiques des LDGs, notamment en ce qui a trait à leur profil inflammatoire. De plus, leur biogenèse demeure toujours mal connue. Mes travaux de maîtrise visaient à comparer les propriétés des LDGs à celles des neutrophiles de densité normale (NDNs). Pour ce faire, 8 chevaux atteints d’asthme équin sévère et 11 chevaux sains bien caractérisés ont été sélectionnés pour l’étude et sur lesquels des isolations de NDNs ainsi que des LDGs ont été réalisées. La morphologie des neutrophiles a ensuite été évaluée par microscopie optique. Le contenu en myéloperoxidase, un composant des granules primaires azurophiles des neutrophiles, et la présence de récepteurs du N-formylméthionine-leucyl-phénylalanine (fMLP-R) ont été évalués par cytométrie de flux et immunofluorescence, respectivement. Enfin, la capacité fonctionnelle de ces cellules à produire spontanément des pièges extracellulaires des neutrophiles (NETs) a été étudiée in vitro par microscopie confocale. Les résultats démontrent que le nombre de LDGs est augmenté dans le sang des chevaux asthmatiques lors d'exacerbation de la maladie. De plus, ces cellules présentent une morphologie différente puisqu’elles sont de taille plus petite et contiennent plus de fMLP-R que les NDNs. Le contenu en myéloperoxidase est cependant similaire dans les deux populations de neutrophiles. Enfin, les LDGs produisent plus de NETs, et sont plus sensibles aux stimuli activateurs que les NDNs. Ces caractéristiques sont similaires dans les 2 groupes de chevaux suggérant ainsi que ce sont des propriétés intrinsèques des LDGs et qu’ils représentent une population cellulaire préactivée et qui de plus, est majoritairement mature. Cette étude caractérise et compare pour la première fois les LDGs chez des animaux sains et ceux retrouvés chez des animaux atteints d’une maladie inflammatoire chronique. / Low-density granulocytes (LDGs) are a subset of neutrophils first described in the bloodstream upon pathological conditions. However, several studies also reported the presence of these cells in the blood of healthy patients. Whether LDGs characteristics, especially their enhanced pro-inflammatory profile, are specific to this subset of neutrophils and not related to disease states is unknown. Thus, we sought to compare the properties of LDGs to those of autologous normal-density neutrophils (NDNs), in both health and disease. We studied 8 horses with severe equine asthma and 11 healthy animals. Neutrophil morphology was studied using optical microscopy, and content in myeloperoxidase and N-formylmethionine-leucyl-phenylalanine receptors (fMLP-R) evaluated using flow cytometry and immunofluorescence, respectively. Confocal microscopy was used to determine their functional capacity to spontaneously release neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) stimulating with phorbol-12-myristate-13-acetate (PMA). LDGs were smaller and contained more fMLP-R than NDNs, but myeloperoxidase content was similar in both populations of neutrophils. They also had an increased capacity to produce NETs, and were more sensitive to activation stimuli. These characteristics were similar in both healthy and diseased horses, suggesting that these are intrinsic properties of LDGs. Furthermore, these results suggest that LDGs represent a population of primed and predominantly mature cells. Our study is the first to characterize LDGs in health, and to compare their characteristics with those of animals with a naturally occurring disease.

M. Tech. (Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Technology), Vaal University of Technology) / Modified asphalt concrete is one of the important construction materials for flexible pavements. The addition of polymers and natural hydrocarbon modifiers to enhance the properties of asphalt concrete over a wide temperature range in paving applications has been the common practice. Currently these modified asphalt mixtures are relatively expensive. However, recycled polymers and rubber added to asphalt have also shown similar results in improving the performance of road pavements. In this study, an attempt has been made to use low density polyethylene (LDPE) obtained from plastic waste and crumb rubber obtained from worn out vehicle tyres. The aim was to optimise the proportions of LDPE in the bitumen binder using the ‘wet process’ and crumb rubber aggregates in the hot mix asphalt (HMA) using the ‘dry process’. The Marshall method of bituminous mix design was carried out for varying percentages of LDPE namely 2%, 4%, 6%, 8% and 10% by weight of bitumen binder and 1%, 2%, 3%, 4% and 5% crumb rubber by volume of the mineral aggregates. The characteristics of bitumen modified with LDPE were evaluated. The modified asphalt mix was also evaluated to determine the different mix characteristics. The results from laboratory studies in terms of the rheological properties of the LDPE modified bitumen binder showed an increase in viscosity, softening point and stiffness of the binder. The optimum Marshall stability values for HMA mixtures containing 2% crumb rubber tyre and 4% LDPE were found to be 30% higher than the conventional asphalt concrete mix. The wheel tracking test done at 50ºC was 9.81mm rut depth showing a good rutting resistance of the optimized mixture compared to the conventional asphalt mixes. The Modified Lottman test gave a Tensile Strength Ratio value of 0.979 which indicates a low degree of moisture susceptibility of the modified asphalt mix. The above results showed improved properties of the asphalt mixture. The economic assessment done using the present worth of costs indicated a reduction in maintenance cost due to the extended service life of the modified asphalt pavement.

Les maladies cardiovasculaires (MCV) demeurent au tournant de ce siècle la principale cause de mortalité dans le monde. Parmi les facteurs de risque, l’hypercholestérolémie et l’obésité abdominale sont directement liées au développement précoce de l’athérosclérose. L’hypercholestérolémie familiale, communément associée à une déficience des récepteurs des lipoprotéines de basse densité (LDLR), est connue comme cause de maladie précoce d’athérosclérose et de calcification aortique chez l’humain. La subtilisine convertase proprotéine/kexine du type 9 (PCSK9), membre de la famille des proprotéines convertases, est trouvée indirectement associée aux MCV par son implication dans la dégradation du LDLR. Chez l'humain, des mutations du gène PCSK9 conduisent soit à une hypercholestérolémie familiale, soit à une hypocholestérolémie, selon que la mutation entraîne un gain ou une perte de fonction, respectivement. Il demeure incertain si les individus porteurs de mutations causant un gain de fonction de la PCSK9 développeront une calcification aortique ou si des mutations entraînant une perte de fonction provoqueront une obésité abdominale. Dans cette étude, nous avons examiné : 1) l’effet d’une surexpression de PCSK9 dans le foie de souris sur la calcification aortique ; 2) les conséquences d’une déficience en PCSK9 (Pcsk9 KO), mimant une inhibition pharmacologique, sur le tissu graisseux. Nous avons utilisé un modèle de souris transgénique (Tg) surexprimant le cDNA de PCSK9 de souris dans les hépatocytes de souris et démontrons par tomographie calculée qu’une calcification survient de façon moins étendue chez les souris PCSK9 Tg que chez les souris déficientes en LDLR. Alors que le PCSK9 Tg et la déficience en LDLR causaient tous deux une hypercholestérolémie familiale, les niveaux seuls de cholestérol circulant ne parvenaient pas à prédire le degré de calcification aortique. Dans une seconde étude, nous utilisions des souris génétiquement manipulées dépourvues de PSCK9 et démontrons que l’accumulation de graisses viscérales (adipogenèse) apparaît régulée par la PCSK9 circulante. Ainsi, en l’absence de PCSK9, l’adipogenèse viscérale augmente vraisemblablement par régulation post-traductionnelle des récepteurs à lipoprotéines de très basse densité (VLDLR) dans le tissu adipeux. Ces deux modèles mettent en évidence un équilibre dynamique de la PCSK9 dans des voies métaboliques différentes, réalisant un élément clé dans la santé cardiovasculaire. Par conséquent, les essais d’investigations et d’altérations biologiques de la PCSK9 devraient être pris en compte dans un modèle animal valide utilisant une méthode sensible et en portant une attention prudente aux effets secondaires de toute intervention. / Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the leading cause of death in the 21st century. Among risk factors, hypercholesterolemia and abdominal obesity are directly linked to premature development of atherosclerosis. Familial hypercholesterolemia, commonly due to low-density lipoprotein receptor (LDLR) deficiency, is known to cause premature atherosclerosis and aortic calcification in humans. Proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin 9 (PCSK9), a member of the proprotein convertase family, is indirectly associated with CVD through enhanced LDLR degradation. Mutations in the human PCSK9 gene lead to either familial hypercholesterolemia or hypocholesterolemia, depending on whether the mutation causes a gain or a loss of function, respectively. It is uncertain if individuals carrying mutations causing a gain-of-function of PCSK9 will develop aortic calcification or whether loss-of-function mutations will lead to abdominal obesity. In this thesis, we investigated: 1) the effect of PCSK9 overexpression on aortic calcification; 2) the consequences of PSCK9 deficiency, mimicking pharmacological inhibition of PCSK9 on fat tissue. We employed a transgenic (Tg) mouse model overexpressing mouse PCSK9 and illustrated by micro-computerized tomography that calcification occurs to a lesser extent in PCSK9 Tg mice than in LDLR-deficient mice. While both PCSK9 Tg and LDLR deficiency caused familial hypercholesterolemia, circulating cholesterol levels alone could not dictate the degree of aortic calcification. In another study, we used genetically modified mice lacking PCSK9 and demonstrated that visceral fat accumulation (adipogenesis) is regulated by circulating PCSK9. Thus in the absence of PCSK9, visceral adipogenesis increases likely via post-translational regulation of very-low-density lipoproteins receptors (VLDLR) in the adipose tissue. In conclusion, these two studies highlight the dynamic balance of PCSK9 in different metabolic pathways, making it a key element in cardiovascular health. Consequently, attempts to survey and/or alter PCSK9 biology should be performed in a valid animal model using sensitive methods and with careful attention to side effects of any given intervention.