miR-17-92 cluster (Oncomir1) encodes seven microRNAs (miRNA, miR) regulating many biological processes including proliferation, differentiation or apoptosis. Overexpression of microRNAs encoded by miR-17-92 cluster is found in a number of tumors including acute and chronic myeloid leukemias (Dixon-McIver et al., 2008; Li et al., 2008; Venturini et al., 2007). Myeloid progenitors express miR-17-92 cluster at a high level, while macrophage differentiation associates with its downregulation. Our laboratory found, that miR-17-92 cluster is repressed by transcription factor Early growth response 2 (Egr2) upon differentiation of primary myeloid PUER progenitors, induced with transcription factor PU.1. Aim of this thesis is to further test the abovementioned data by preparing a reporter vectors set, carrying various fragments of miR-17-92 putative promoter, which enables us to study regulation of transcription of miR-17-92 cluster. This task complicated by presence of increased GC content of the miR-17-92 promoter was successfully accomplished resulting in amplification of eight fragments containing the various parts of miR-17-92 promoter including region -3.3 to 0 kb relative to the start of miR-17-5p sequence, that were inserted into pGL3 reporter vector. Transfection of pGL3 reporter vector carrying...

Microglia and brain-resident macrophages are the sentinel immune cells of the central nervous system (CNS), and are ideally situated to respond to any damage to the brain parenchyma or vasculature. Circulating leukocytes are generally excluded from the CNS environment under homeostatic conditions but can gain access to this region in diseases that disrupt immune system function and blood-brain barrier integrity. Although these diverse immune cells exhibit properties that may engender them to be well-suited to resolve microcirculatory insults, their relative contributions to the recanalization of capillary rupture in the cortex, known as cerebral microbleeds (CMBs), has yet to be described. CMBs are particularly concerning in conditions, such as diabetes mellitus (DM), in which these insults occur more frequently and potentially underlie the onset and progression of cognitive decline. Using in vivo 2-photon microscopy and confocal imaging, here I highlight the compromised repair of CMBs in a mouse model of type 1 DM and characterize the robust, heterogeneous macrophage response to these insults. Specifically, 20% of damaged capillaries were eliminated from the circulation in the diabetic cortex and chronic insulin treatment failed to prevent this microvascular loss. Administration of interferon-α or interferon-γ neutralizing antibodies to dampen inflammatory signalling, or dexamethasone to reduce global inflammation, also failed to improve repair rates of damaged microvessels in diabetic mice. In contrast, CMBs in nondiabetic mice repaired without exception. Interestingly, depletion of CNS macrophages using the colony stimulating factor-1 receptor antagonist PLX5622 resulted in microvascular elimination in nondiabetic mice. Given the robust depletion of brain macrophage populations with this treatment, at first these data suggested that these cells were necessary for microvascular repair since their elimination produced vessel loss. However, by parsing the data I identified that microvessels repaired in all cases where macrophages were not identified at the CMB; when CX3CR1+ aggregate was localized to the injury, ~20% of microvessels were eliminated. These findings show that CNS macrophages are not required for microvascular repair following CMB. Immunofluorescent co-labelling of various microglial and macrophage markers within the diabetic CMB milieu revealed a novel population of Mac2+/TMEM119- cells, distinct from homeostatic TMEM119+ microglia. These cells reliably localized to CMBs that failed to repair and rarely associated with vessels that recanalized; Mac2+/TMEM119- cells were not found within nondiabetic CMBs. Treatment of diabetic mice with clodronate liposomes (CLR) to deplete circulating phagocytic leukocytes prevented aggregation of Mac2+/TMEM119- cells to CMBs and improved capillary repair rates. The efficacy of CLR in excluding these cells from the CMB aggregate, coincident with eradication of monocytes from circulation, indicated that these cells likely arose from the periphery. In vivo 2-photon imaging revealed significant increases in lipofuscin at the site of diabetic CMBs relative to the nondiabetic context; other phagocytic markers including CD68 and TREM2 were also upregulated. Mac2+/TMEM119- cells showed elevated lipofuscin content relative to homeostatic microglia; their association with CMBs may thus signal an increase in phagocytosis that contributes to capillary pruning. Taken together, these data identify a novel Mac2+/TMEM119- macrophage associated with pathological microvascular elimination following CMB in the diabetic neocortex. These findings highlight the diversity of immune cell responses to CNS injury and provide insights into the cellular mechanisms of capillary pruning. Furthermore, these advances in our understanding of the regulation of microvascular elimination in the diabetic brain may have clinical implications for patients with DM as they provide evidence for putative adjuvant anti-inflammatory treatments, such as CLR, in mitigating cerebrovascular pathology. / Graduate / 2022-05-06

Depuis sa découverte en 1983, la recherche sur le virus de l’immunodéficience humaine de type 1 (VIH-1) a connu un essor exemplaire, permettant la mise en place de tests de dépistage sensibles et de traitements antirétroviraux (TARs) efficaces. Malgré ces traitements qui contrôlent la réplication virale à des niveaux plasmatiques indétectables, l’éradication du VIH n’est pas atteinte. L’ADN intégré du VIH persiste dans des sous-populations cellulaires et la réplication virale reprend après l’arrêt du traitement. Alors que la persistance des réservoirs du VIH dans les lymphocytes T CD4+ est bien documentée, la contribution des cellules myéloïdes n’est pas bien définie. De plus, les TAR ne bloquent pas la transcription du VIH, permettant ainsi une réplication virale résiduelle dans certains tissus tels que la muqueuse intestinale. Cette réplication résiduelle est une source d‘activation immunitaire chronique et une barrière contre la guérison. La survie des lymphocytes T CD4+ mémoires portant les réservoirs du VIH est dépendante, en partie, de l’interaction avec les cellules dendritiques (DCs), dans le cadre du processus de présentation antigénique. L’identification des signaux fournis par les DCs et menant à la réactivation transcriptionnelle des réservoirs du VIH reste un axe de recherche prioritaire afin d’identifier de nouvelles stratégies thérapeutiques. Mes études doctorales ont eu pour but de comprendre la contribution directe et indirecte des cellules myéloïdes à la persistance du VIH-1 sous TAR. Dans la première partie de mon doctorat, je me suis intéressée à la contribution directe de différentes sous-population myéloïdes à la persistance des réservoirs du VIH sous TAR dans le sang et le colon des personnes vivant avec le VIH (PLWH). Nous avons démontré que la présence des réservoirs du VIH dans ces cellules myéloïdes était un évènement rare. En parallèle, j’ai réalisé des travaux dans un modèle de souris humanisées pour explorer l’existence et la contribution des cellules myéloïdes d’origine embryonnaire de longue durée de vie et capables d’autorenouvèlement à la persistance des réservoirs viraux sous TAR. Nous avons démontré que, contrairement aux lymphocytes T CD4+, les cellules myéloïdes résidant dans le foie et les poumons portent de l’ADN viral intégré avant, mais pas après la TAR, ce qui est un indicateur de leur faible contribution à la persistance du VIH sous TAR. Dans la deuxième partie de mon doctorat, je me suis intéressée à la contribution indirecte des cellules myéloïdes, et en particulier celle des DCs dérivées des monocytes (MDDCs) classiques CD16- versus intermédiaires/non-classiques CD16+. Nous avons démontré que les MDDCs CD16+ se distinguent des MDDC CD16- par l’activité élevée de leur enzyme RALDH métabolisant la vitamine A en acide rétinoïque et leur capacité supérieure à transmettre le VIH aux lymphocytes T CD4+ spécifiques/réactives au Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus). De plus, nous avons démontré que les MDDC RALDH+ contribuent à l'établissement et à la réactivation des réservoirs du VIH dans les cellules T spécifiques à certains pathogènes non-VIH, tels que S. aureus, via un mécanisme dépendant de la production de l’acide rétinoïque par les MDDC en réponse à des ligands du recepteur de type Toll (TLR) 2. Ensemble, mes études doctorales démontrent que, bien que les cellules myéloïdes contribuent rarement de façon directe à la persistance des réservoirs du VIH, leur rôle indirect est important dans ce processus via l’interaction avec les lymphocytes T CD4+. De plus, les résultats que j’ai générés élargissent les connaissances sur la spécificité antigénique des lymphocytes T CD4+ mémoires portant les réservoirs du VIH et identifient l’enzyme RALDH comme une potentielle cible thérapeutique pour limiter la dissémination du virus et la persistance des réservoirs au niveau des muqueuses. Dans la première partie de mon doctorat, je me suis intéressée à la contribution directe de différentes sous-population myéloïdes à la persistance des réservoirs du VIH sous TAR dans le sang et le colon des personnes vivant avec le VIH (PLWH). Nous avons démontré que la présence des réservoirs du VIH dans ces cellules myéloïdes était un évènement rare. En parallèle, j’ai réalisé des travaux dans un modèle de souris humanisées pour explorer l’existence et la contribution des cellules myéloïdes d’origine embryonnaire de longue durée de vie et capables d’autorenouvèlement à la persistance des réservoirs viraux sous TAR. Nous avons démontré que, contrairement aux lymphocytes T CD4+, les cellules myéloïdes résidant dans le foie et les poumons portent de l’ADN viral intégré avant, mais pas après la TAR, ce qui est un indicateur de leur faible contribution à la persistence du VIH sous TAR. Dans la deuxième partie de mon doctorat, je me suis intéressée à la contribution indirecte des cellules myéloïdes, et en particulier celle des DCs dérivées des monocytes (MDDCs) classiques CD16- versus intermédiaires/non-classiques CD16+. Nous avons démontré que les MDDCs CD16+ se distinguent des MDDC CD16- par l’activité élevée de leur enzyme RALDH métabolisant la vitamine A en acide rétinoïque et leur capacité supérieure à transmettre le VIH aux lymphocytes T CD4+ spécifiques/réactives au Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus). De plus, nous avons démontré que les MDDC RALDH+ contribuent à l'établissement et à la réactivation des réservoirs du VIH dans les cellules T spécifiques à certains pathogènes non-VIH, tels que S. aureus, via un mécanisme dépendant de la production de l’acide rétinoïque par les MDDC en réponse à des ligands du recepteur de type Toll (TLR) 2. Ensemble, mes études doctorales démontrent que, bien que les cellules myéloïdes contribuent rarement de façon directe à la persistance des réservoirs du VIH, leur rôle indirect est important dans ce processus via l’interaction avec les lymphocytes T CD4+. De plus, les résultats que j’ai générés élargissent les connaissances sur la spécificité antigénique des lymphocytes T CD4+ mémoires portant les réservoirs du VIH et identifient l’enzyme RALDH comme une potentielle cible thérapeutique pour limiter la dissémination du virus et la persistance des réservoirs au niveau des muqueuses. / Since the discovery of the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) in 1983, significant breakthroughs have led to efficient and sensitive viral tests, as well as potent antiviral therapies (ART). However, although ART controls viral replication to undetectable plasma levels, viral eradication is yet not achieved. Integrated HIV-DNA persists in different cell subsets, and viral replication resumes after treatment interruption. While HIV persistence is well characterized in CD4+ T-cells, the contribution of myeloid cells remains elusive. Notably, ART does not inhibit HIV transcription, thus allowing for residual viral replication in tissues such as the gut. This low level of viral replication contributes to chronic immune activation and represents a major challenge in developing a cure. Memory CD4+ T-cells bearing HIV reservoirs interact with dendritic cells (DCs) in an antigen specific manner, resulting in T-cell clonal expansion. Hence, we need to identify cellular signals provided by DCs that lead to transcriptional reactivation of HIV reservoirs. During my Ph.D., I studied the direct and indirect mechanisms by which myeloid cells contribute to HIV persistence during ART. In the first part of my thesis, I studied the direct contribution of myeloid subsets to the persistence of the HIV reservoir during ART. We demonstrated that HIV persistence in myeloid cells is a rare event in the blood and colon of ART-treated people living with HIV (PLWH). In parallel, we used humanized mice (hu-BLT) to explore the contribution of long-lived tissue-resident macrophages (LL-TRM), with embryonic origin and self-renewal capacity to the HIV reservoir during ART. We demonstrated that myeloid cells in this hu-BLT mouse model, are permissive to HIV infection, but are not HIV reservoirs during ART. These results point to the need for establishing new models allowing LL-TRM development for HIV reservoir studies. In the second part of my thesis, I studied the indirect contribution of DCs derived from classical (CD16-) or intermediate/non-classical (CD16+) monocyte origin. We identified that, in contrast to CD16- monocyte-derived DCs (MDDCs), CD16+ MDDCs exhibit a superior activity of the RALDH enzyme, involved in retinoic acid metabolism, and a higher capacity to transmit HIV to CD4+ T-cells specific/reactivated to Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus). Furthermore, we demonstrated that RALDH+ MDDCs contribute to HIV reservoir establishment and reactivation in T-cells with specificity to non-HIV pathogens (e.g. S. aureus) through a retinoic acid-dependent mechanism in response to Toll like receptor (TLR) 2 stimulation. Together, these results underline the key role of CD16+ MDDCs and bacterial/fungal pathogens in fueling HIV reservoir establishment/outgrowth via a RALDH/RA-dependent mechanism that may be therapeutically targeted. In conclusion, my doctoral work demonstrated that, despite the rare direct contribution of myeloid cells to the HIV reservoir, these cells play an important indirect role through their ability to interact with CD4+ T-cells and to modulate their functions. These results extend the knowledge on the antigenic specificity of memory CD4+ T-cells harboring HIV reservoirs and they identify the RALDH/retinoic acid pathway as a potential therapeutic target to limit viral dissemination and persistence of viral reservoirs in mucosal sites.

The paradigm shift in cardiovascular biology has been the understanding that atherosclerosis involves not just a mechanical deposition of lipids in the vessel wall, but a dynamic process involving the inflammatory response with cellular infiltration and inflammatory mediator expression. Typical cellular elements that have been studied include endothelial cells, vascular smooth muscle, T lymphocyte and the macrophage. Recent data suggests a role for the human mast cell. The human mast cell is a tissuedwelling cell, typically perivascular in distribution. This multifunctional cell responds rapidly to challenge with the release of inflammatory mediators that can orchestrate an immune response and may have relevance to atherogenesis. Mast cells have been shown to modulate various aspects of cardiovascular disease such as atherogenesis (endothelial activation, cytokine generation and foam cell formation) as well as rupture of an unstable atheromatous plaque. Mast cell activation in the context of cardiovascular disease may occurby cognate cell-cell interactions (interactions with macrophages, T cells, endothelial cells or smooth muscle) or by non-cognate means (such as lipoproteins and other proatherogenic components). More studies are required in order to better understand the molecular role of mast cells in vascular inflammatory disease.

Alcohol is a commonly consumed beverage, a drug of abuse and an important molecule affecting nearly every organ-system in the body. This project seeks to investigate the interplay between alcohol’s effects on critical organ-systems making up gut-liver-brain axis. Alcohol initially interacts with the gastrointestinal tract. Our research describes the alterations seen in intestinal microbiota following alcohol consumption in an acute-on-chronic model of alcoholic hepatitis and indicates that reducing intestinal bacteria using antibiotics protects from alcohol-induced intestinal cytokine expression, alcoholic liver disease and from inflammation in the brain. Alcohol-induced liver injury can occur due to direct hepatocyte metabolic dysregulation and from leakage of bacterial products from the intestine that initiates an immune response. Here, we will highlight the importance of this immune response, focusing on the role of infiltrating immune cells in human patients with alcoholic hepatitis and alcoholic cirrhosis. Using a small molecule inhibitor of CCR2/CCR5 chemokine receptor signaling in mice, we can protect the liver from damage and alcohol-induced inflammation. In the brain, we observe that chronic alcohol leads to the infiltration of macrophages in a region-specific manner. CCR2/CCR5 inhibition reduced macrophage infiltration, alcohol-induced inflammation and microglial changes. We also report that chronic alcohol shifts excitatory/inhibitory synapses in the hippocampus, possibly through complement-mediated remodeling. Finally, we show that anti-inflammasome inhibitors altered behavior by reducing alcohol consumption in female mice. Together, these data advance our understanding of the gut-liver-brain axis in alcoholism and suggest novel avenues of therapeutic intervention to inhibit organ pathology associated with alcohol consumption and reduce drinking.

The breadth of genetic diversity in the mammalian immune response stands out amongst the ubiquity of variation seen in the genome, evidence that microbial infections have been a major driver of evolution. As technology has facilitated an understanding of the etiology of immunological diversity, so too has it enabled the assessment of its varied functions. Functional genomics, with its ability to assess both cause and effect, has revolutionized our understanding of fundamental biological phenomena and recalibrated our hypotheses. We build upon the model of host immunity established by rare genetic variants that are causative of immunodeficiencies, but that incompletely consider the complexities of the genome. To expand our understanding, we performed a series of forward genetic screens to identify regulators of distinct functions of the innate immune system. Our studies discovered genes with novel functions in antigen presentation and immunoregulation, including several involved in central metabolism. Studies in macrophages and dendritic cells identified mitochondrial respiration as a positive regulator of the interferon-gamma response, and cells incapable of respiration failed to activate T cells. Notably, human mutations in several of these genes are responsible for immune dysfunction. In summary, this work uses new methods in genetic engineering to systematically assess the regulation of innate immunity. Our results suggest that variation in these regulatory pathways is likely to alter immunity in states of health and disease. Thus, our work validates a new approach to identify candidate genes relevant to immune dysfunction.

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Inflammaging is a hallmark of human aging. Defined as low-grade, chronic inflammation, it is characterized by heightened proinflammatory cytokines in the blood and tissues and predicts morbidity and mortality. Despite this, the etiology of inflammaging and its role in infection have remained elusive, an issue this thesis addressed. First, we provided a comprehensive overview of an intranasal Streptococcus pneumoniae colonization model (Chapter 2). We described in detail the colonization technique, and demonstrated how to isolate and phenotype recruited cells, quantify bacterial load and measure production of immune mediators in the nasopharynx. Since both myeloid cell recruitment and tumour necrosis factor (TNF) production were increased following S. pneumoniae colonization with age, we investigated whether TNF directly augmented monocyte frequency (Chapter 3). TNF increased CCR2 expression on monocytes in old mice, leading to their enhanced egress from the bone marrow, resulting in enrichment of this population in the circulation. Monocyte numbers directly influenced plasma IL-6 levels, and this negatively impacted anti-bacterial responses, as monocyte blockade improved pneumococcal clearance in old mice. Lastly, to better understand the fundamental source of inflammaging, we studied the impact of the host microbiome on its development. This work was rooted in Elie Metchnikoff’s early predictions that leakage of intestinal bacterial products could dysregulate macrophage function, resulting in inflammation that would progress aging (Chapter 4). We showed that old mice had increased intestinal permeability, aberrant expression of cellular junction genes and increased microbial translocation from the gut to the blood. Germ-free mice lived longer than their conventionally colonized counterparts, and were protected from the development of inflammaging and defective macrophage function. Together, these studies resolve a major disparity in the field by demonstrating that systemic TNF production is initiated by increased levels of circulating bacterial products, driving functional defects in myeloid cells, which ultimately impairs anti-bacterial immunity. / Thesis / Candidate in Philosophy