As at 2014, 19 million children aged < 16 years were visually impaired, 1.4 million of these children were blind and needed visual rehabilitation interventions. Surveys, mostly utilizing key informants (KI), have suggested that the prevalence of blindness in children in Sub Saharan Africa ranges between 2 -8 per 10,000 children. Childhood eye disease is rare and conditions are difficult to detect; thus, surveys to estimate the prevalence of blindness requires rigorous, costly and difficult methods to obtain reasonable estimates among children. Key informant programs, which engage the community in case finding, have been shown to be a reasonable alternative to large scale surveys and were used in Madagascar in 2014 by four regional eye care programmes. I propose to analyse the data generated from the programmes to quantify the prevalence of eye conditions among children and how the KIs performed. Method: The analysis will use data collected in a cross sectional approach. Statistical analysis will be conducted using Stata (15.0) statistical software. Data from all of the KI registers will be pooled and overall magnitude estimates calculated. KI productivity and sub-group analyses will include assessment of demographic characteristics of the children and the KI by age and sex. Ethical approval will be provided by the UCT Health Research and Ethics Committee and the Madagascar Ministry of Health. Discussion: The results from this study will help child eye health programmes to determine how best to use KI to better serve children with vision loss, and guide in the provision of eye services for children care.

This dissertation investigates reproductive schedules of brown mouse lemurs at Ranomafana, using intensive trapping techniques. The reproductive condition of female mouse lemurs was recorded on the basis of vaginal morphology, vaginal smears, body mass gain profiles and nipple development. Testis size was measured in males throughout the reproductive season. The timing of the first seasonal estrus was determined in frequently captured females over multiple years and it showed individual periodicities close to 365 days, consistent with endogenous regulation and entrainment by photoperiod. The timing of estrus did not correlate with female age or body mass. Males showed testicular regression during the rainy season, although there was high inter-individual variation in testes size at any given point during the reproductive season. Furthermore, some individuals completed testicular regression earlier than others. Implications for polyestry are discussed. For comparative purposes, mouse lemurs were also trapped at two study sites in the Tsinjoarivo area: one in a forest fragment and the other within continuous forest. These forests are higher in altitude than the main study area at Ranomafana. Trapping success for mouse lemurs was lower at Tsinjoarivo than Ranomafana. Albeit preliminary, data from Tsinjoarivo suggest that females have lower reproductive success than do females at Ranomafana. Nevertheless, mouse lemurs in the Tsinjoarivo forest fragment did not appear to be in "poorer" condition than those in the continuous forest. It had been reported in the literature that western gray mouse lemurs captured in secondary forests have lower body masses and lower recapture rates than those captured in primary forest; in fact, the opposite was true of the mouse lemurs at Tsinjoarivo. I additionally collected data on a larger member of the family Cheirogaleidae, the dwarf lemurs (Cheirogaleus), which live in sympatry with Microcebus at Ranomafana and Tsinjoarivo. I analyzed the patterns of growth, development and reproduction in Cheirogaleus and Microcebus and compared dwarf and mouse lemurs to other similarly-sized prosimians which do not undergo torpor or hibernation. These comparisons draw attention to the unusual reproductive and metabolic strategies employed by cheirogaleids to cope with Madagascar's unpredictable environments, which ultimately define their very unique life histories.

No description available.

With a population estimate of 99 pairs, the Madagascar fish-eagle (Haliaeetus vociferoides) is one of the rarest birds of prey in the world. I investigated the ecological requirements of the Madagascar fish-eagle in 1994 and 1995 to help determine management action to prevent its extinction. I investigated fish-eagle foraging ecology in 1996 to determine its prey preference and whether fish abundance and availability affect fish-eagle foraging rates and foraging success. Madagascar fish-eagle nest and perch trees were taller, broader, had more unobstructed branches, and had a greater arc of accessibility than unused trees. Perch trees also were deciduous more often and had a narrower growth form than unused trees. Nest sites had more shoreline perch trees than unused sites. Lakes occupied by fish-eagles were deeper and clearer, and had more shoreline perch trees, more fish, a greater total fish weight, and more fish species than unoccupied lakes. I developed logistic regression models to predict the probability of Madagascar fish-eagle use based on the measured habitat variables. Nest and perch tree models included tree height. The nest site model included number of shoreline perches. Lake models included number of shoreline perches and either number of fish, total fish weight, or number of fish species. These models can be used to predict fish-eagle habitat use with > 70% accuracy. Introduced tilapia, Oreochromis spp. and Tilapia spp., made up the majority of both the gill net (66.3%) and fish-eagle catch (64.7%) in similar proportion, which suggests that the fish-eagle is an opportunistic predator. Replacement of native fish species by exotics, thus, probably has not been detrimental to the island's fish-eagle population. Male fish-eagle foraging success was positively correlated with number of fish, total fish weight, and number of fish species, which suggests that declines in the fish population could adversely affect the fish-eagle population. The results of this study indicate that Madagascar fish-eagles require bodies of water with large shoreline trees and an ample fish population. I recommend greater protection of aquatic habitats, monitoring and management of freshwater fish populations, and education of local people in sustainable tree harvesting practices. / Ph. D.

Worldwide, many wildlife populations are in decline or facing extinctions due to overhunting, habitat loss and fragmentation, infrastructure development, resource extraction, and climate change. These threats are particularly detrimental to Madagascar's most iconic wildlife - lemurs (Primates: Lemuridae) – which have been declared Earth's most threatened mammal group, with 103 of 107 species currently threatened with extinction. Due to the numerous anthropogenic pressures facing lemurs, concerted efforts have been made to design and implement effective conservation management plans as well as to maintain captive populations. My dissertation focused on understanding the behavior and physiology of two critically endangered lemur species: the golden crowned sifaka (Propithecus tattersalli) and the Coquerel's sifaka (P. coquereli). To gain a better understanding of free-living golden-crowned sifaka habitat requirements, I combined behavior data with Dynamic Brownian Bridge Movement Models and Resource Selection Functions to examine the influence of abiotic, biotic, and anthropogenic factors on movement and foraging patterns. I found that movement rates and core area use were greater in the rainy season than in the dry season. My findings also indicated that roads and human villages influenced the locations where sifakas choose to forage, demonstrating the need to strategically place infrastructure to limit wildlife disturbance (Chapter 2). Second, having explored potential stressors in wild sifaka, I wanted to explore relationships between physiological stress and captive care in sifakas. Specifically, I investigated relationships between captive sifaka fecal glucocorticoid metabolite levels and captive husbandry conditions. I found that age and contraceptive use, but not enclosure type, season, or sex, influenced glucocorticoid excretion (Chapter 3). These results highlight the importance of assessing the physiological impacts of captive husbandry conditions to ensure that the best animal welfare practices can be maintained. Third, to combat challenges in studying animal behavior using observational approaches, I designed and constructed low-cost, open-source proximity loggers to remotely examine fine-scale movement and social behaviors in wild and captive sifakas. I found a relationship between radio signal strength and distance between tracking devices (R2 = 0.8812), demonstrating that proximity sensors can effectively collect data on close range group-level behavior (Chapter 4). These modular devices can be used on an array of wildlife species to explore social interactions that require high resolution spatial data. Taken together, these results illustrate the opportunity of connecting behavioral, ecological, physiological, and technological approaches to gain critical insight into the multidimensional nature of wildlife conservation. Lastly, I discussed future steps that can be taken to extend the framework established by my dissertation research to address the complex dynamics shaping conservation in Madagascar (Chapter 5). / Doctor of Philosophy / Worldwide, many wildlife populations are at risk of extinction due to hunting, habitat loss, infrastructure development, and climate change. These threats are particularly detrimental to lemurs – a diverse group of primates found only on the island of Madagascar. Due to the numerous pressures facing lemurs, efforts have been made to design and implement effective conservation management plans and maintain captive populations. My dissertation focused on understanding the behavior and physiology of two critically endangered lemur species: the golden crowned sifaka (Propithecus tattersalli) and the Coquerel's sifaka (P. coquereli). To better understand wild golden-crowned sifaka habitat needs, I followed six groups of sifakas in humid, moderate, and dry forests to examine the influence of season, forest type, and human development on their movement patterns and feeding locations. I found that sifakas moved more and used more space in the rainy season than in the dry season. Several sifaka groups also avoided feeding near roads and human villages, demonstrating the need to strategically place infrastructure to limit negative effects on wildlife (Chapter 2). Second, having explored potential stressors in wild sifaka, I wanted to explore relationships between physiological stress and captive care in sifakas. Specifically, I analyzed sifaka fecal samples to investigate relationships between captive sifaka husbandry conditions and physiological stress (i.e., glucocorticoid levels). I found that age and birth control use, but not enclosure type, season, or sex, influenced glucocorticoid levels (Chapter 3). These results highlight the importance of assessing the physiological impacts of captive husbandry conditions to ensure that the best animal welfare practices can be maintained. Third, to combat challenges in studying animal behavior using observational approaches, I designed and constructed low-cost, open-source tracking devices to remotely study fine-scale movement and social behaviors in wild and captive sifakas. I found that the distance between tracking devices can be determined by using proximity sensing radio chips. This demonstrated that proximity sensors can effectively collect data on close range group-level behavior (Chapter 4). These modular devices can be used on an array of wildlife species to explore social interactions that require high resolution spatial data. Taken together, these results illustrate the benefits of using behavioral, physiological, and technological approaches to gain insight into the multidimensional nature of wildlife conservation. Lastly, I discussed future steps that can be taken to extend the framework established by my dissertation research to address the complex dynamics shaping conservation in Madagascar (Chapter 5).

L’étude ciblait le sud-est de Madagascar, dans la région de l’Anosy. Cette région, comme le reste de Madagascar, fait face à une dégradation écologique alarmante menaçant sa riche biodiversité. QMM, une filiale de Rio Tinto, y a démarré un important projet d’exploitation minière en 2009. La compagnie a pris plusieurs engagements sociaux et de réhabilitation écologique des sites après exploition.L’exploitation minière requiert la coupe à blanc du couvert végétal ainsi que la perturbation de la mycorhizosphère du sol pour aller chercher les minéraux jusqu’à une profondeur de vingt mètres. Étant donné le rôle des symbioses racinaires dans l’établissement des plants, ces outils biologiques devraient être partie intégrante des pratiques améliorées de réhabilitation. L’objectif du projet était donc de tester différents symbiotes racinaires (mycorhize arbusculaire, Glomus irregulare) et des bactéries fixatrices d’azote, Bradyrhizobium sp.) sur Mimosa latispinosa, une espèce d’arbuste native de la région, pionnière et fixatrice d’azote. Glomus irregulare et deux souches malgaches de Bradyrhizobium spp. (STM1415 et STM1447) ont été inoculés seuls ou en combinaison sur M. latispinosa en pépinière près du site minier. Quatre mois après l’inoculation, il n’y a pas eu un effet significatif des souches symbiotiques sur la croissance de la plante, quoiqu’une bonne colonisation ait été observée. La stérilisation du sol engendre toutefois un effet positif sur la croissance des plantes. G. irregulare et deux souches de Bradyrhizobium spp. (STM1413 et STM1415) ont également été testés sur M. latispinosa en serre au Centre National de Recherche en Environnement (CNRE) de Madagascar à Antananarivo. Ces essais ont montré que G. irregulare seul est inefficace pour stimuler la croissance de la plante, mais que l’inoculation double avec Bradyrhizobium spp. augmente significativement sa croissance. Les deux souches testées, STM1413 et STM1415, se sont montrées efficaces pour stimuler la croissance de M. latispinosa en serre. Les conditions pédologiques légèrement différentes en serre ne permettent toutefois pas de comparer les résultats aux conditions de la pépinière. / This study focused on the south-east part of Madagascar, the Anosy region. This region, as elsewhere in Madagascar, is subject to an alarming ecological degradation which is threatening its abundant biodiversity. QMM, a Rio Tinto subsidiary, started in 2009 an important mining project in this region. The company committed itself to social responsibility activities and environmental rehabilitation of the mined site. Indeed, the mining operations imply the clearcutting of the land and the disturbance of the mycorhizosphere in order to extract the minerals found at a depth of twenty meters. Considering the key role of root symbioses in the establishment of plants, these biotools should integrated parts in enhanced reclamation practices. The aim of the project was to test different symbiotic stains (arbuscular mycorrhiza, Glomus irregulare and indigenous rhizobial bacterias, Bradyrhizobium spp.) on Mimosa latispinosa, a native, pioneer and nitrogen fixing shrub. Glomus irregulare and two Malagasy strains of Bradyrhizobium spp. (STM1415 &amp; STM1447) were inoculated alone or in combination on M. Latispinosa in nursery, located close to the mining site. Four months after inoculation, it appeared that none of the symbiotic strain had a significant effect on the plant growth, even if there was a good colonization. However, the soil sterilization produced a positive effect on the plant growth. G. irregulare and two strains of Bradyrhizobium spp. (STM1413 and STM1415) were also tested on M. latispinosa in glasshouse at the headquarter of the National Center for Environmental Research of Madagascar, located at Antananarivo. These trials showed that G. irregulare inoculated alone was ineffective for the plant growth increment, but that dual inoculation increased growth significantly. Both rhizobial strains tested, STM1413 and STM1415, were effective to stimulate the growth of M. Latispinosa in glasshouse. However, the soil conditions were slightly different in the glasshouse, making it difficult to compare the results with the nursery conditions.

La recherche porte sur l’accompagnement dans le cadre de la politique de la protection de l’enfant à Madagascar. Malgré la montée de la maltraitance, dans un contexte de crises économiques et sociales répétitives provoquant l’extrême précarité de la population, cette protection peine à s’organiser du fait du manque de moyens de l’Etat, de l’absence d’une politique claire dans ce domaine, de l’insuffisance de coordination des « acteurs » engagés dans les réseaux de protection de l’enfance,Fondé sur vingt ans d’expériences de l’auteur dans le domaine social, sur un recueil de données mené par entretiens et questionnaires auprès de professionnels de terrain et des parents, cette recherche fait apparaître la contradiction entre les traditions coutumières propres à la culture malgache (mariage précoce, rejet des jumeaux…) et les exigences de la convention internationale relative aux droits de l’enfant à laquelle Madagascar a adhéré. Elle montre, compte-tenu de ces contradictions, la nécessité de l’accompagnement de l’enfant et de ses parents. En s’appuyant sur les recherches relatives à l’accompagnement et sur le rôle des différentes formes que prend ce dernier dans le développement d’un processus de résilience, l’auteur fait apparaître qu’une démarche fondée sur une pluralité d’accompagnements « naturel »,« psychosocial » et institutionnel peut initier un changement dans les représentations traditionnelles de l’enfant. Cette pluralité, en permettant de dépasser la simple « prise en charge », facilite aussi une implication accrue des familles et des communautés dans la prévention et la lutte contre la maltraitance. / This research study is on the accompaniment in framing policy with regard to theprotection of child in Madagascar. Despite the increasing abuse in the context of repeatingsocial and economic crisis provoking an extreme danger to the population, this protectionis not easy due to the facts of lack of state resources, absence of a clear policy in this area,and the requisite co-ordination of “actors” engaged in protection networks of children.Founded on the experience of the author for twenty years in social domain, and on theresponses collected through interviews and questionnaires from professionals in this areaand the parents, this study reveals the contradiction between the customs of the Malagasyculture (early marriage and rejection of twins…) and the requirement of InternationalConvention related to the rights of children to which the Madagascar has given itsadherence. It also gives an account of these contradictions and the necessity ofaccompaniment of the parents and the children.Basing herself on the related studies of accompaniment and on the role of different forms ittakes in the development process of resilience, the author shows that this process, foundedon the plurality of accompaniments “natural”, “psychological” and “institutional”, caninitiate a change in the child related traditional beliefs. This plurality, permitting us tobypass a simple approach of “control”, facilitates an implication increasing the role of thefamilies and communities in the struggle against and prevention of abuse.

La pauvreté à Madagascar a des implications dans le domaine social, économique, politique et environnemental. Ainsi, depuis une vingtaine d'années, on observe une immigration interne massive suite à la découverte et à l'exploitation de nouvelles ressources naturelles. Ce phénomène s'est accentué suite, d'une part, à la découverte de certains sites miniers (par exemple Ilakaka en 1998) et, d'autre part, à l'explosion de la demande de bois précieux sur le marché international. Cette thèse porte principalement sur ce deuxième point. Elle essaie d'apporter des informations et une réflexion pertinente sur l'immigration dans les deux communes rurales et la ville d'Antalaha, qui se trouve être la principale zone d'exploitation forestière malgache en terme de bois précieux. Si l'exploitation des bois précieux a engendré un flux migratoire très important dans les zones d'études, ces migrations n'ont pas toujours eu les mêmes caractéristiques à travers le temps. Les phénomènes migratoires constatés dans les différentes zones d'activité présentent en effet une grande variété de cas. Le principal facteur qui les réunit est l'abondance de la ressource disponible dans chaque zone, mais leurs conséquences sur les systèmes socio-économiques et écologiques peuvent être fort différentes. Grâce à une méthodologie de recherche et un travail de terrain couplant une approche méthodologique à la fois quantitative et qualitative, nous poserons comme problématique centrale de cette thèse de savoir si cette immigration apporte ou non un développement local dans la les zones d'études. / Poverty in Madagascar has implications in the field of social, economic, political and environmental. Thereby, over the last around twenty years, massive internal immigration has taken place and been observed due to the discovery and exploitation of new natural resources. This phenomenon spread out with reference to, on the one hand, the discovery of certain mining sites (for example Ilakaka in 1998) and, on the other hand, the explosion of the precious wood demand on the international market. On this second point, this thesis focuses on providing relevant information and reflection on immigration in the two rural communes and the city of Antalaha, which is one of the main areas in Madagascar well-known in owning and logging forest of precious wood. Even if the exploitation of precious woods has caused a very large migratory flow, these migrations have not always had the same characteristics over the time. The migratory phenomena observed in the different zones of activity present a wide variety of cases. The main factor bringing them together is the abundance of available resources, though the impact on socio-economical and ecological systems can be quite different from one area to another. Thanks to a research methodology and a field approach combined with a quantitative and qualitative methodological guidance, we will take as central problem of this thesis whether this immigration does or does not bring a local development in the zones of study.

Le principal objectif de cette thèse est d’apporter, à travers divers essais et analyses empiriques,des éléments de réponses quant au rôle du secteur informel sur le marché du travail et la pauvretéà Madagascar, et tout particulièrement à Antananarivo, sa capitale. La thèse est organisée enquatre chapitres. Le premier chapitre présente les méthodologies d’appréhension du secteurinformel à Antananarivo : l’enquête 1-2-3 en deux phases sur le secteur informel et laconsommation des ménages, ainsi que l’élaboration de déflateurs spécifiques des agrégatséconomiques du secteur informel. Le second chapitre présente les spécificités du secteur informelà Antananarivo. Le troisième chapitre est consacré aux relations entre les activités informelles et lemarché du travail. Le quatrième et dernier chapitre s'intéresse aux liens entre secteur informel etpauvreté. La thèse aborde les dimensions économiques et sociales susceptibles de justifier despolitiques d’appui au secteur informel dans le cadre de la lutte contre la pauvreté : la contributiondes activités du secteur informel à l’incidence de la pauvreté et l’impact de l’exercice de ce typed'activités sur le bonheur individuel. Ces analyses conduisent à s’intéresser à ses caractéristiques,sa dynamique, ses faiblesses, les obstacles à son développement et les aides souhaitées par lesopérateurs, en particulier les besoins en microcrédit. Des analyses complémentaires sontproposées quant au choix d'exercer un travail indépendant et aux discriminations sur le marché,notamment dans sa dimension formelle/informelle. / The main purpose of this thesis is to provide, through various articles and empirical analysis, someresponses about the role of the informal sector in labor market and poverty in Madagascar, with afocus on the case of Antananarivo. The thesis is organized in four chapters. The first one presentsmethodologies for investigating the informal sector in Antananarivo : the 1-2-3 survey in two stepson the informal production units and household consumption, and the development of economicaggregates deflators in the informal sector. The second chapter of this thesis presents thecharacteristics of the informal sector in Antananarivo. The third chapter is devoted to relationshipsbetween the informal and the labor market. The fourth and final chapter is dedicated to the analysisof the role of the informal sector on poverty. The thesis examines the social or economic interestsjustify the informal sector support in the fight against poverty: the contribution of informal sectoractivities on the incidence of poverty and the impact of exercise of informal activity on the individualhappiness. This leads to focus the analysis on its characteristics, dynamics, weaknesses, barriersto its development and aid desired by the operators, in particular the need for microcredit.Complementary analyses are also provided concerning the choice of self-employment anddiscrimination on the labor market along a formal/informal line.

Cette thèse est une contribution au débat sur l’entrepreneuriat comme levier économique et social pour le développement des pays du Sud. L’objectif de cette thèse est de déterminer plus particulièrement le comportement de l’entrepreneur malgache des zones franches textiles et spécifier son management interculturel.Cette thèse, caractérisée par une approche multidisciplinaire, est structurée en trois parties.La première partie présente une revue de la littérature afin d’appréhender l’état actuel des recherches sur l’entrepreneur dans les pays du Sud et introduit la notion de management interculturel. La seconde partie s’articule d’une part autour des origines et des évolutions du cluster textile à Madagascar et d’autre part autour de la prégnance de la culture malgache dans le comportement des entrepreneurs des zones franches textiles. Enfin la dernière partie de cette thèse s’attelle aux analyses empiriques de récits de vie des entrepreneurs. Cette partie propose une typologie des entrepreneurs dans les entreprises franches textiles à Madagascar, à partir de l’analyse interprétative des récits de vie. / This Ph.D. is a contribution to the recent debates on the role of entrepreneurship in developing countries. The main issue of the thesis is to determine entrepreneurs’ behavior through intercultural management. This work is applied to the Madagascar’s free zone entrepreneurs. In this thesis, we use multidisciplinary methodology in order to understand how Madagascar’s entrepreneurs develop their activities. The first chapter of the thesis presents the state of the art of recent research on entrepreneurship in developing countries. The second chapter analyses the origins and evolutions of the textile cluster of Madagascar and introduces the role of cultural elements. Finally, the third chapter reproduces some “fragments” from these entrepreneurs’ interviews. This chapter delivers a typology for the entrepreneurs of Madagascar’s textile free zone.