O método da análise de causa raiz tem sido utilizado para investigar e analisar erros de medicação, promover a segurança do paciente e implementar o sistema de forma a garantir a qualidade na assistência e, por isso, ele foi utilizado neste estudo. Os objetivos do estudo foram descrever as doses de medicamentos preparadas e administradas diferentemente daquelas prescritas, em uma clínica médica, de um hospital universitário, utilizando o método da análise de causa raiz; apresentar a freqüência dos tipos de erros identificados, dos turnos de ocorrência, dos profissionais e dos medicamentos envolvidos; elaborar um desenho dos fatores causais de cada dose observada e propor estratégias e recomendações que evitem a recorrência desses erros no sistema de medicação. Tratou-se de estudo descritivo e que realizou uma análise secundária de dados de um estudo já existente. No estudo, 74 erros de medicação foram identificados durante o preparo e a administração de medicamentos pela equipe de enfermagem, sendo que 84,3% foram cometidos por auxiliares de enfermagem que prepararam ou administraram os medicamentos. Erros de dose (24,3%), erros de horário (22,9%) e medicamentos não autorizados (13,5%) foram os mais freqüentes. Dos 70 eventos descritos, a equipe de enfermagem utilizou a requisição da farmácia para preparar os medicamentos em 81,4% das observações, rotulou os medicamentos inadequados ou não rotulou em 80%, não consultou a prescrição médica antes da administração em 74,3% dos eventos, não orientou (41,4%) e não confirmou o paciente pelo nome antes da administração em 22,9% dos eventos. Além desses fatores, outros, como falta de equipamento no setor, medicamento deixado com o acompanhante para administrar, comunicação inadequada e alteração da prescrição médica contribuíram para a ocorrência dos erros. Assim, erros de medicação foram identificados, a análise de causa raiz foi realizada identificando múltiplos fatores que contribuíram para a ocorrência dos erros e estratégias foram recomendadas para evitar a ocorrência dos erros. Este estudo contribuiu para a garantia da segurança do paciente, apresentando o método de análise de erros e as estratégias que podem ser utilizadas pelas instituições para a prevenção dos erros. / Root cause analysis has been used to investigate and analyzing medication errors, promoting patient safety and system improvement, for that, he was used in this study. This study aimed at: describing, by using the root cause analysis method, medication doses prepared and administered differently from those prescribed at a medical clinical of a university hospital; presenting the frequency of the identified error types, shifts of occurrence and professionals and drugs involved; outlining the causative factors for each dose and proposing strategies that will prevent the recurrence of such errors in the medication system. It is a descriptive study in which a secondary analysis of data from a previously existing investigation was performed. In the study, 74 medication errors were identified during medication preparation and administration by the nursing staff, of whose members 84.3% were nursing auxiliaries who prepared or administered medication. Dose errors (24.3%), schedule errors (22.9%) and unauthorized medication (13.5%) were the most frequent. Of the 70 events described, the nursing staff used the pharmacy order to prepare the medication in 81.4% of the observations, labeled inadequate medication or did not in 80%, did not consult the medical order prior to administration in 74.3% of the events, did not provide patient orientation (41.4%) and did not confirm the patient\'s name prior to administration in 22.9% of events. Additionally to these factors, others such as the lack of equipment in the facilities, medication being left for the patient\'s companion to administrate, inadequate communication and alteration of the medical order contributed to error occurrence. Hence, medication errors were identified, and root cause analysis was performed, leading to the identification of multiple factors that contributed to error occurrence, and strategies were recommended in order to prevent it. Therefore, this study has contributed to patient safety by presenting an analysis method and strategies that can be used by institutions for the prevention of errors.

Eventos adversos aos medicamentos e erros de medicação são muito comuns na prática assistencial e podem ocorrer em qualquer etapa do processo da terapia medicamentosa, contribuindo com a ocorrência de iatrogenias nos pacientes devido ao uso incorreto dos medicamentos ou a sua omissão. Neste contexto, encontramse as prescrições médicas que têm papel ímpar na prevenção do erro, uma vez que prescrições ambíguas, ilegíveis ou incompletas podem contribuir com a ocorrência destes eventos. Esta investigação teve o propósito de analisar a redação de prescrições médicas em unidades de clínica médica de cinco hospitais Brasileiros, comparar os dados obtidos entre os hospitais e propor recomendações para a prevenção de futuros erros de medicação. Tratou-se de um estudo descritivo que utilizou de dados secundários obtidos de uma pesquisa multicêntrica realizada em 2005. A população foi composta por 1.425 medicamentos administrados em discordância com a prescrição. Deste total, a administração de medicamentos em horário diferente do prescrito foi o mais freqüente nos cinco hospitais investigados, correspondendo a 76,0%. A análise da redação da prescrição revelou que 93,6% continham siglas e/ou abreviaturas, 10,7% não apresentavam dados do paciente, 4,3% omitiram informações sobre o medicamento e 4,2% apresentavam alterações e/ou suspensão do medicamento. Com a implantação do sistema computadorizado de prescrições, associada à prática da educação continuada e permanente dos profissionais envolvidos no sistema de medicação será possível minimizar os danos causados aos pacientes hospitalizados decorrentes da administração de medicamentos e, consequentemente, melhorar a qualidade do cuidado prestado. / Adverse events related to medicines and medication errors are very common in the health care assistance and can occur at any stage of the medication process, contributing with the occurrence of iatrogenys in the patients due to the incorrect use of medicines or its omission. In this context, we find medical orders which has uneven role in the prevention of medication error, once ambiguous, unreadable or incomplete medication order may contribute with the occurrence of these events. This study had the intention to analyze the writing of medical orders at internal medicine units of five Brazilian hospitals, to compare data between these hospitals and to consider recommendations for the prevention of future medication errors. This descriptive study used secondary data from a multicentric research occurred in 2005. The population was composed of 1.425 medications given in discordance with the medical order. From this total, the medication administration at different schedule administration time was the most frequent error found at the five hospitals investigated, corresponding to 76.0%. The analysis of the writing of the medical order disclosed that 93.6% contained acronyms and/or abbreviations, 10.7% did not present any information about the patient, 4.3% had omitted information about the medicine and 4.2% presented alterations and/or suspension of the medicine. With the implantation of the computerized prescription order entry system, associate to the practice of continued and permanent education of the involved professionals in the system of medication it will be possible to minimize the damage caused to the patients in the hospital deriving from the administration of medicine and, therefore, improve the quality of the care given.

Neste estudo analisou-se e comparou-se o sistema de medicação quanto ao processo de prescrição, dispensação, preparo e administração de medicamentos em unidades de psiquiatria de um hospital geral e de um hospital psiquiátrico, do interior paulista; identificaram-se e compararam-se erros de medicação nas unidades em estudo, identificaram-se e compararam-se tipos, causas, providências e sugestões para prevenção dos erros, na perspectiva dos profissionais e identificou-se o conhecimento dos mesmos sobre aspectos relevantes do sistema de medicação. Trata-se de estudo transversal, do tipo survey exploratório, que utilizou a abordagem quantitativa. Foi realizado em duas enfermarias de psiquiatria de hospital geral e em quatro enfermarias de hospital psiquiátrico e nas farmácias desses hospitais. A amostra total constou de 12 médicos, 17 enfermeiros, 68 auxiliares ou técnicos de enfermagem, 13 farmacêuticos e 37 auxiliares de farmácia. Para coleta de dados, utilizaram-se as técnicas de observação não participante direta, entrevista semiestruturada gravada e questionário. Os dados resultantes da observação foram apresentados de forma descritiva e, as entrevistas, foram analisadas por meio de estatística descritiva. Como principais resultados das observações destacaram-se, em ambos os hospitais: ambiente desfavorável para a prescrição, com ruídos e interrupções, prescrições médicas não precedidas pela avaliação clínica do paciente e não revisadas por farmacêuticos, distribuição de medicamentos por dose individualizada e ausência do enfermeiro no processo de preparo e administração de medicamentos. Destaca-se que no hospital psiquiátrico observaram-se prescrições válidas por cerca de 10 dias, ausência de profissional específico para distribuição do medicamento e não utilização de pulseira de identificação. Quanto aos erros de medicação, houve destaque para horário errado de administração (19/14,3%) no hospital geral e erro de preparo, manipulação e/ou acondicionamento no hospital psiquiátrico (52/21,5%). Os tipos de erros mais frequentes foram prescrição errada no hospital geral (30/46,1%) e no hospital psiquiátrico (26/33%) e suas causas deviam-se principalmente às falhas individuais no hospital geral (39/60%) e no hospital psiquiátrico (44/55,7%). Quanto às providências administrativas, sobressaíram-se o relatório no hospital geral (27/41,5%) e a orientação no hospital psiquiátrico (28/35,4%). Interceptar os erros no hospital geral (8/12,3%) e aperfeiçoamento do sistema eletrônico no hospital psiquiátrico (22/28,8%) foram as principais sugestões dos profissionais, direcionadas ao sistema de medicação e atenção nas atividades individuais, tanto no hospital geral (30/46,1%) como no hospital psiquiátrico (47/59,5%), foram direcionadas aos profissionais. Identificou-se, ainda, desconhecimento dos profissionais sobre aspectos de fundamental importância do sistema de medicação para a segurança do paciente. Este estudo revela pontos vulneráveis em relação à segurança do paciente na terapêutica medicamentosa em serviços de internação psiquiátrica e propicia discussão de recomendações que podem promover a segurança no sistema de medicação / This study analyzed and compared the medication system regarding the process of prescription, dispensation, preparation and administration of medication in psychiatric units of a general hospital and a psychiatric hospital, located in the interior of the state of São Paulo, Brazil. Errors in medication were identified and compared in the studied units. The causes, procedures and suggestions for preventing errors were identified and compared, in the perspective of professionals, and their knowledge of the relevant aspects of the medication system was identified. The cross-sectional, quantitative, exploratory survey study was conducted in two psychiatry wards of a general hospital and in four wards of a psychiatry hospital and in the pharmacies of these hospitals. The total sample consisted of 12 physicians, 17 nurses, 68 nursing auxiliaries or technicians, 13 pharmacists and 37 pharmacy assistants. For data collection, non-participant direct observation, recorded semi-structured interview and questionnaires were used as techniques. Data resulting from the observation were presented descriptively and the interviews were analyzed through descriptive statistics. As main results of the observation, in both hospitals it was highlighted the unfavorable environment for prescription, with noise and interruptions, medical prescriptions with previous clinical evaluation of the patient and not revised by pharmacists, distribution of medication by individualized dose and absence of nurses in the process of preparation and administration of medication. It is noteworthy that at the psychiatric hospital prescriptions valid for 10 days were observed, as well as lack of a specific professional to distribute the medication and non-utilization of the identification bracelet. As to the medication errors, it is highlighted the errors in administration timing (19/14.3%) in the general hospital and preparation, manipulation and/or storage error in the psychiatric hospital (52/21.5%). The most frequent types of errors were wrong prescriptions in the general hospital (30/46.1%) and in the psychiatric hospital (26/33%), and its causes were due mostly to individual flaws in the general hospital (39/60%) and in the psychiatric hospital (44/55.7%). Regarding the administrative measures, the report in the general hospital (27/41.5%) and the orientation in the psychiatric hospital (28/35.4%) were underlined. Intercepting the errors in the general hospital (8/12.3%) and improvement of the electronic system in the psychiatric hospital (22/28.8%) were the main suggestions of the professionals directed to the medication system. As to the recommendations for professionals, attention to individual activities were identified both in the general hospital (30/46.1%) as in the psychiatric hospital (47/59.5%). Furthermore, it was identified that professionals did not know about fundamentally important aspects of the medication system for patient safety. This study discloses vulnerabilities in relation to patient safety in drug therapy in psychiatric inpatient services, also stimulating discussion of recommendations that can promote safety in the medication system

Os erros na medicação podem trazer sérias conseqüências aos pacientes, profissionais e às instituições de saúde; resultando de múltiplas causas, dentre elas: falhas profissionais e do sistema de medicação. O objetivo deste estudo foi identificar e analisar os processos do sistema de medicação, suas falhas e propor medidas de melhorias ao hospital. Realizou-se uma pesquisa quantitativa do tipo survey exploratório, na unidade de clínica médica e na farmácia de um hospital geral e universitário do estado de Goiás, após aprovação do Comitê de Ética em Pesquisa. A amostra constituiu-se de um farmacêutico na primeira etapa, 40 profissionais na terceira etapa, sendo 12 (30%) médicos-residentes; 20 (50%) profissionais de enfermagem e 8 (20%) profissionais da equipe de farmácia, além da utilização de 294 prontuários. Realizou-se a coleta dos dados em 2002, por meio de entrevista com o responsável pelo sistema de medicação da instituição; de observação não-participante de ambientes e de ações dos profissionais e acadêmicos; de entrevista com profissionais e de análise de prontuários. Consultaram-se todos os profissionais quanto à sua disposição para participar do estudo e, a seguir, solicitou-se a assinatura do termo de consentimento livre e esclarecido. Os dados obtidos possibilitaram caracterizar os seguintes processos: prescrição de medicamentos realizada manualmente com cópia carbonada, dispensação por dose individualizada, além de indicar que o profissional de enfermagem que administra o medicamento não é o mesmo que o prepara, na clínica médica. Os resultados das observações realizadas durante 21 dias, nos processos de prescrição, dispensação e administração de medicamentos, indicaram: o ambiente como principal problema no processo de prescrição (69%) e de dispensação de medicamentos (30,6%), por se tratar de local impróprio, com ruídos e interrupções freqüentes; falhas na segurança durante a técnica e preparo antecipado do medicamento no processo de preparação (46,8%). O estudo possibilitou, também, a construção de um gráfico do fluxo das 60 ações desenvolvidas desde a prescrição até o monitoramento. As entrevistas com os profissionais apontaram que os tipos de erros mais freqüentes estavam relacionados à prescrição médica (29%) e ao horário (20,6%); suas causas deviam-se a falhas individuais e falta de atenção (47,4%) e excesso de trabalho (14,5%). As falhas individuais dos profissionais foram apontadas também como principal falha do sistema de medicação (27%). A alteração nas atitudes individuais foi a sugestão mais indicada para evitar a ocorrência de erros, com 28,3% das respostas, e a orientação, a providência mais tomada (25%). A análise dos prontuários mostrou prescrições de medicamentos com 64,6% de legibilidade, tendo 62,2% tanto nomes de medicamentos comerciais quanto do princípio ativo; 95% estavam incompletas para algum item; 96% apresentavam abreviaturas e 30% rasuras. Encontraram-se anotações sobre medicamentos apenas em sete relatos de enfermagem e uma outra na evolução médica. A clínica não possui relatório de ocorrências sobre erros na medicação. As medidas propostas para melhorar o sistema e, conseqüentemente, prevenir erros na medicação foram: prescrição eletrônica, dose unitária, relatórios sobre erros, cultura não-punitiva, segurança do paciente e, enfim, simplificação do sistema. / The medication errors can bring serious consequences to patients, professionals and healthcare institutions, they have multiple causes, amongst them failures related to the professionals and related to the medication system. This study’s objective was to identify and to analyse the medication system process, its failures in order to propose improvement actions to the hospital. This exploratory descriptive study took place in the medical clinical unit and in the pharmacy of a general and university hospital of the state of Goiás, after approval of the Committee of the Ethics of the correspondent hospital. The sample included: (first phase) a pharmacist, (third phase) 40 professionals divided into 12 resident physicians (30%), 20 nursing professionals (50%), 8 pharmacy team members (20%); 294 patient charts were also used. The data was collected in 2002 and consisted of an interview with the professional in charge of the medication system, and non-participant observation of the environment and actions of the professionals and the academic people, interviews with the professionals and patient chart analysis. The professionals were asked to sign on the “Free Will Participation Agreement". It was possible based on the data collected to describe the following processes: handwriting medication prescription using carbon paper, individually dose dispensing and that the nursing professional who administrates the drug is not the same that prepares it in the clinical unit. The results based on the 21 days of observation of the drug prescription, dispensing and administration processes were: the environment is the main problem in the prescription (69%) and dispensing (30,6%) processes, it is a noisy place and interruptions frequently occur; safety failures during the technique and in-advance drug preparation appeared in the top (46,8%) in the preparation process. The data collection also allowed to build a chart of the 60 steps from drug prescription to monitoring. The results from the interviews showed that the most frequent errors were related to both prescription (29%) and schedule (20,6%) and their main cause were individual failures and lack of attention (47,7%) and work overload (14,5%). The individual failures were also listed as the main failure in the medication system (27%). In order to avoid errors 28,3% of the answers suggested to change the individuals’ behavior, and orientation as the administrative action more frequently taken (25%). The patient chart analysis found out the following drug prescriptions characteristics: 64,6% readable, 62,2% using drug brand names as well as the active principle name, 95% incomplete for missing information, 96% using abbreviations and 30% with erasures. Concerning to drug notifications, the analysis also found out 7 nursing reports, one from the physician and that there is no error report in the clinical unit. The suggested improvements to avoid errors and enhance the system are: computerized physician order electronic entry, unit dose, errors reports, non-punitive approach, patient safety, and at last to make the system as simple and lean as possible.

Este estudo identificou, analisou e comparou os erros de medicação ocorridos nos processos de preparo e administração de medicamentos, em uma unidade de internação clínica de um hospital público de ensino, pertencente à Rede de Hospitais-Sentinela da Agência Nacional de Vigilância Sanitária (ANVISA) e localizado na cidade de Rio Branco-AC. Trata-se de um estudo observacional e transversal, realizado no período de julho a setembro de 2005. A amostra foi constituída de 1.129 doses de medicamentos. Esta investigação foi desenvolvida em duas fases: na primeira, os dados foram obtidos a partir da observação direta dos processos que compõem o sistema de medicação e de entrevistas com três profissionais: o responsável pelo setor de farmácia, o chefe do serviço médico e a supervisora do serviço de enfermagem. Na segunda fase, foram observados o preparo e a administração de 1.129 doses, e os erros de medicação foram identificados. Os resultados permitiram identificar 404 (35,8%) erros de medicação e um sistema de medicação com 56 ações. Verificou-se que 866 (76,7%) prescrições estavam manuscritas; 126 (11,2%) não continham o nome legível do medicamento; em 267 (23,6%) faltavam as doses; em 107 (9,5%) não constava a via; em 712 (63,1%) não havia a forma de apresentação; em 20 (1,8%) faltava a freqüência; e em 338 (29,9%) não constavam o tipo e volume do diluente para o preparo. No preparo de medicamentos, foi identificado que 976 (86,4%) doses estavam rotuladas incorretamente e 49 (4,3%) doses não possuíam rótulo. Em relação à administração, observou-se que apenas 31 (2,7%) doses foram administradas após conferência direta da prescrição; em 691 (61,2%) doses não ocorreu identificação do paciente e em 904 (80,1%) doses não houve orientação a respeito do medicamento. Constatouse que 179 (78,2%) doses infundidas não foram controladas, e 214 (18,9%) doses foram registradas imediatamente após a administração. Nas observações em que se desconhecia previamente a prescrição do medicamento, ocorreram os seguintes erros: 47 (4,2%) erros de dose, 2 (0,2%) erros de via, 130 (11,5%) erros de horário, 2 (0,2%) erros de pacientes, 11(1%) erros de medicamentos não autorizados e 71 (6,3%) erros de omissão. Nas observações em que se conhecia previamente a prescrição, identificaram-se 17 (1,5%) erros de dose, 85 (7,5%) erros de horário, 4 (0,4%) erros de medicamentos não autorizados e 35 (3,1%) erros de omissão. Nessa etapa, não ocorreram erros de via e de paciente. Propõe-se como medidas para a redução dos erros nessa instituição: formar um grupo multiprofissional com a finalidade de discutir e estabelecer estratégias que possam promover a segurança do paciente; elaborar protocolos de preparo e administração de medicamentos e promover a educação continuada e permanente para os profissionais. Sugere-se, ainda, que a instituição padronize a prescrição médica, normatizando os itens da prescrição dos medicamentos; desenvolvendo um sistema de distribuição de dose unitária e implementando a prescrição médica eletrônica. / This study identified, analyzed and compared the medication errors that occurred in the medication preparation and administration processes at a clinical hospitalization unit of a public teaching hospital, which is part of the Sentinel Hospital Network of the Brazilian National Health Surveillance Agency (ANVISA) and located in Rio Branco-AC, Brazil. We carried out an observational and cross-sectional study between July and September 2005. The sample consisted of 1,129 medication doses. This study was developed in two phases: in the first, data were obtained through direct observation of the medication system processes and interviews with three professionals: the pharmacy sector responsible, the medical service head and the nursing service supervisor. In the second phase, we observed the preparation and administration of 1,129 doses and identified medication errors. The results revealed 404 (35.8%) medication errors and a medication system that consisted of 56 actions. We found 866 (76.7%) handwritten prescriptions; 126 (11.2%) did not contain the readable name of the drug; doses were missing in 267 (23.6%); route in 107 (9.5%); form in 712 (63.1%); frequency in 20 (1.8%); and the diluent type and volume for preparation in 338 (29.9%). In medication preparation, we identified that 976 (86.4%) doses were labeled incorrectly and that 49 (4.3%) doses did not have a label. With respect to administration, only 31 (2.7%) doses were administered after direct verification of the prescription; in 691 (61.2%) doses, the patient was not identified and, in 904 doses (80.1%), no orientation was provided about the drug. We found that 179 (78.2%) infused doses were not controlled, and that 214 (18.9%) were registered immediately after their administration. In those observations when the medication prescription was previously unknown, the following errors occurred: 47 (4.2%) dose errors, 2 (0.2%) route errors, 130 (11.5%) time errors, 2 (0.2%) patient errors, 11(1%) unauthorized medication errors and 71 (6.3%) omission errors. In those cases when the medication prescription was previously known, we identified 17 (1.5%) dose errors, 85 (7.5%) time errors, 4 (0.4%) unauthorized medication errors and 35 (3.1%) omission errors. In this phase, no route and patient errors occurred. To reduce errors at this institution, we propose the following measures: constitute a multiprofessional group to discuss and establish strategies with a view to promoting patient safety; elaborate medication preparation and administration protocols and promote continuing and permanent professional education. We also suggest that the institution should standardize medication prescriptions by normalizing medication prescription items; developing a unit dose distribution system and implementing electronic medical prescriptions.

This thesis sought to explore the phenomenon of discontinuing neuroleptic medication for psychosis. It comprises three standalone papers. Papers one and two have been prepared for submission to journals and in accordance with the journal guidelines. Paper one is a systematic literature review synthesising studies investigating the association between neuroleptic discontinuation and functional outcomes. Databases were systematically searched and thirteen studies were included in the review. Evidence regarding the association between discontinuation from neuroleptic medication and functional outcomes was mixed. Findings are limited by the scarcity of evidence, diversity in the study methods and designs used, and methodological and design quality issues. Paper two is a qualitative study exploring personal accounts of making choices about neuroleptic medication, specifically considering decisions to discontinue. Twelve participants were interviewed and a constructivist grounded theory approach was used to analyse transcripts. The findings suggest that making sense of choices relates to a continuation-discontinuation spectrum and involves three interrelated tasks. The tasks are: forming a personal theory of the need for, and acceptability of, neuroleptic medication; negotiating the challenges of forming alliances with others; and weaving a safety net to safeguard wellbeing. A theoretical model explaining the processes involved in the tasks and the mediating factors is presented and discussed. The clinical implications of the findings are discussed with reference to existing literature. Paper three is not intended for publication and is a critical review of the research process, in which the strengths and weaknesses of the systematic review and empirical study are evaluated. Personal and professional reflections on the experience of conducting a systematic review and an empirical qualitative study are discussed and the implications of the research for future clinical practice and research are considered.

Abstract The aim of the study was to determine nursing staff’s self-assessment of how they adhere to guidelines on safe medication administration during the medication process in long-term elderly care. In the first phase of this quantitative study, a Safe Medication Management Scale was developed and its reliability was evaluated. A panel of experts (n = 7) determined the scale’s content and the structure of its items. A pilot study was conducted with nursing staff from long-term elderly care wards in one town in northern Finland. The response rate was 24 % (n = 69). In the second phase, a cross-sectional study was conducted among nursing staff from long-term elderly care wards in one hospital district in Finland. The response rate was 39 % (n = 492). The majority of the nurses reported always adhering to guidelines during the medication process. However, one third of the nurses stated that they do not always follow guidelines when preparing medication, and approximately half stated that they do not always follow guidelines when administering medication. Shortcomings were identified in medication documentation, especially in the recording of the effects of medicine and the reason for administration. Routine checks were not always performed at different stages of the medication administration process. Also, patient involvement in the medication administration process was not always completed. Statistically significant associations were detected between the responses and the nurses’ self-assessment of how well they follow recommendations in general, as well as their knowledge of pharmacology and infection control, and their skill in performing medication calculations. A statistically significant association was detected in the age of the nurses; older age groups followed guidelines more thoroughly than younger age groups. When nurses self-assessed their activities in general at a higher level, they seemed to also follow guidelines better. Deviation from instructions and recommendations relating to the administration of medicines often leads to a medication error or creates an opportunity for errors to occur. The results of this study can be used to improve medication safety in long-term elderly care through the development of medication administration processes in organizations as well as the attitudes and competence of nursing staff so that medication is always given in accordance with instructions and recommendations. / Tiivistelmä Tutkimuksen tarkoituksena oli kuvata ja selittää lääkehoidon turvallista toteuttamista ikääntyneiden pitkäaikaishoidossa lääkehoitoon osallistuvan hoitohenkilöstön näkökulmasta. Tämän kvantitatiivisen poikkileikkaustutkimuksen ensimmäisessä vaiheessa kehitettiin lääkehoidon turvallisen toteuttamisen itsearviointimittari ja arvioitiin sen luotettavuutta. Mittarin sisällön validiuden arvioinnissa hyödynnettiin asiantuntijapaneelia (n = 7). Esitestaus tehtiin yhden kuusikkokunnan kunnallisissa ikääntyneiden pitkäaikaishoidon yksiköissä (n = 18). Vastausprosentti oli 24 % (n = 69). Toisen vaiheen perusjoukon muodostivat yhden sairaanhoitopiirin kunnallisten ikääntyneiden pitkäaikaishoidon yksiköiden lääkehoitoon osallistuvat hoitohenkilöstöt. Vastausprosentti oli 39 % (n = 492). Suurin osa hoitajista toteutti lääkehoitoa turvallisesti. Kuitenkin kolmannes hoitajista arvioi, että he eivät aina saata lääkkeitä käyttökuntoon ohjeiden ja suositusten mukaisesti. Lähes puolet arvioi poikkeavansa ohjeista ja suosituksista koskien lääkkeiden antamista ja lääkehoidon vaikutusten seurantaa ja arviointia. Kirjaamisessa havaittiin puutteita erityisesti lääkehoidon vaikutusten ja lääkkeen antamisen syiden kirjaamisessa. Rutiininomaisia tarkistuksia ei aina tehty lääkehoidon prosessin vaiheissa. Potilaan osallistaminen lääkehoidon prosessiin ei arviointien mukaan myöskään aina toteutunut. Mitä paremmin hoitaja koki hallitsevansa farmakologian, infektioiden torjunnan ja lääkelaskennan, sitä paremmin hän myös näytti toteuttavan lääkehoitoa. Hoitajan iällä havaittiin tilastollisesti merkitsevä yhteys lähes kaikkien osa-alueiden kanssa; iältään vanhemmat toteuttivat lääkehoitoa huolellisemmin suosituksia ja ohjeistuksia noudattaen kuin nuoremmat. Mitä paremmaksi hoitajat itsearvioivat toimintansa yleisesti, sitä paremmin he näyttivät vastausten perusteella toteuttavan lääkehoitoa. Kun lääkehoidon ohjeista ja suosituksista poiketaan, aiheuttaa se usein lääkityspoikkeaman tai sen mahdollisuuden. Poikkeama voi aiheuttaa myös lääkehaittatapahtuman. Tässä tutkimuksessa tuotetun tiedon avulla ikääntyneiden pitkäaikaishoidon lääkitysturvallisuutta voidaan parantaa kehittämällä sekä yksikön lääkehoidon toteuttamisen prosesseja, että hoitohenkilöstön lääkehoidon asenteita ja osaamista sellaisiksi, että lääkehoitoa toteutetaan kaikissa tilanteissa ohjeistusten ja suositusten mukaisesti.

The purpose of this body of work was to address medication errors and safe medication administration practices in relation to practicing nurses and nursing students via several different approaches. These different approaches will be presented as three separate papers but interrelated themes. The specific purpose for each paper and the corresponding research questions were addressed individually in each chapter. The approach used in the first paper was a systematic literature search of medication administration errors and the pediatric population; five themes emerged including the incidence rate of medication administration errors, specific medications involved in medication administration errors and classification of the errors, why medication administration errors occur, medication error reporting, and interventions to reduce medication errors. The approach used in the second paper included a systematic literature review and implementation of a survey, both focusing on the assessment strategies for safe medication administration with practicing nurses and nursing students. Results of both the review and the survey indicated a lack of a comprehensive assessment of safe medication administration. The approach used in the third paper was a research study to conduct a psychometric evaluation of the Safe Medication Administration (SAM) Scale with baccalaureate nursing students. Results provided evidence of the validity and reliability of the SAM Scale. This body of work exposed a gap in nursing and demonstrates the importance of having a standardized assessment of safe medication administration with evidence of validity and reliability to demonstrate competency in this area.

The general aim was, within psychiatric inpatient care, to explore patient and staff perceptions with regard to medication administration and locked entrance doors. In Study I, medication administration was illuminated according to a mini-ethnographic approach. Nurses and voluntarily admitted patients were observed and interviewed. Two central categories of patient and nurse experiences were identified, get control and leave control. In Study II, patients and nurses were interviewed about patient experiences of forced medication. Identified experiences were related to the disease, being forcibly medicated, and the drug. In Study III, the frequency of and reasons for locked entrance doors on Swedish psychiatric inpatient wards were investigated. Seventy three per cent of the doors were locked on a specific day. According to ward managers, doors were most often locked in order to prevent patients from escaping, provide security and safety, and because legalisation. In Study IV/V, voluntarily admitted patients/mental nurse assistants and nurses were interviewed about advantages and disadvantages about being cared for/working on a psychiatric inpatient ward with a locked entrance door. Most advantages mentioned by patients and staff were categorised as protection against “the outside”, secure and efficient care, and control over patients. Most disadvantages mentioned by patients were categorised as confinement, dependence on the staff, and emotional problems for patients. Most disadvantages mentioned by staff were categorised as extra work, confinement, dependence on the staff, and a non-caring environment. In conclusion, medication administration and locked entrance doors are perceived as connected with staff’s control and restricted freedom for patients. Increased reflection among staff about how medication administration and locked entrance doors are perceived by patients would increase staff’s possibilities to prevent potential experiences of coercion due to these situations among patients in psychiatric inpatient care.

No description available.