Entender o clima dos espaços urbanos em suas diversas conformações é objeto de grande interesse para a melhoria da qualidade de vida da população que usufrui desses espaços. Cada microclima requer intervenções específicas para a obtenção de condições favoráveis de conforto higrotérmico tendo em vista a saúde e o bem estar de seus usuários. O objetivo desta pesquisa foi avaliar elementos de vegetação como barreira aos ventos visando o conforto térmico em espaços abertos. O procedimento utilizado foi quantificar a interferência de elementos vegetais na passagem dos ventos, na altura dos pedestres, a partir de configurações de vegetação pré-estabelecidas. O cenário eleito para este estudo foi a área externa do Campus da Universidade Metodista de Piracicaba (UNIMEP), localizado no bairro Taquaral em Piracicaba, SP. Embora trate-se de clima predominantemente quente, há relatos de desconforto no local em dias frios decorrente do excesso de ventos. Foram estudadas três diferentes espécies dispostas em arranjos com intenção de barreira aos ventos: Jasminum mesnyi Hance, Pseudosasa japonica (Steud.) Makino e Pinus caribaea Morelet. As variáveis microclimáticas medidas foram temperatura do ar, umidade relativa do ar e velocidade dos ventos, em três posições distintas por espécie: em um campo aberto próximo, antes e depois da barreira. O período de coleta de dados foi das 9 às 21 horas, em intervalos de 3 minutos, durante três dias por espécie, nos meses de agosto e setembro de 2014. Os resultados obtidos no campo aberto foram comparados aos registrados na estação meteorológica da ESALQ-USP no mesmo período. Foi feita a medição do LAI (Índice de Área Foliar) das espécies. Foram realizadas simulações computacionais em modelagem da área no programa ENVI-met® 3.1, com os dados de Densidade de Área Foliar (LAD) estimados a partir dos valores de LAI obtidos nas medições, como parte dos estudos de viabilidade para adoção do LAI como parâmetro na previsão de resultados, o que permitiria sua aplicabilidade a outras espécies. Os resultados obtidos indicam uma tendência favorável a este princípio, porém estudos com maior intensidade amostral são necessários para obtenção desta correlação. Outras aplicações podem ser beneficiadas com esta linha de estudo, como a previsão do risco de queda de árvores. / Understanding the climate of urban spaces in their various conformations is subject of great interest to improve the quality of life of the population that occupies these spaces. Each microclimate requires specific interventions to obtain favorable terms of hygrothermal comfort owing to health and welfare of its members. The objective of this research was to evaluate plant matter as a barrier to winds targeting the thermal comfort in open spaces. The procedure was quantifying the interference of tree elements in the passage of winds, at a pedestrian level, from pre-established vegetation settings. The chosen scenario for this study was the campus of the Universidade Metodista de Piracicaba (UNIMEP), located in the Taquaral neighborhood in Piracicaba, SP. While dealing is predominantly warm weather, discomfort is reported in cold weather due to the excessive winds in the external areas. We studied three different species placed in arrangements intended as wind barriers: Jasminum mesnyi Hance, Pseudosasa japonica (Steud.) Makino and Pinus caribaea Morelet. Microclimate variables measured were air temperature, relative humidity and wind speed, in three different positions by species: in a nearby open field, before and after the barrier. The data collection period was from 9 to 21 o\'clock, at 3-minute intervals for three days by species, in August and September 2014. Results obtained in open field were compared with those recorded at ESALQ-USP\'s weather station during the same period. The LAI (Leaf Area Index) of the species was measured. Computer simulations were performed by modeling the area in ENVImet® 3.1 program, with the Leaf Area Density data (LAD) estimated from the LAI values obtained in measurements, as part of feasibility studies for the adoption of LAI as a parameter in the forecast results, allowing its applicability to other species. The results indicate a positive trend towards this principle, however, studies with larger sample intensity are required in order to achieve this correlation. Other applications may benefit from this line of study, such as the prediction of falling trees risks.

La durabilité chimique des alliages métalliques résulte notamment de la nature des défauts ponctuels assurant le transport au travers du film d’oxydation formé en surface. L'élaboration de couches d'oxyde modèles par oxydation thermique en pression contrôlée et ALD (Atomic Layer Deposition) et l'étude de leurs propriétés semi conductrices (conditionnées par la nature des défauts ponctuels) devrait permettre une meilleure compréhension des mécanismes de formation de ces couches d'oxyde. / The chemical durability of the metal alloy results in particular from the nature of point defects providing transport through the oxidation film formed on the surface. Models oxide layers, grown by thermal oxidation and Alomic Layer Deposition, will be studied by photoelectrochemistry. This will provide us information about the semiconductive properties of the oxide, determined by the point defect in the oxide layer, and should allow us a better understanding of the formation mechanism of these oxide.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-04-28T20:56:32Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Judivania Dantas de Andrade Dias.pdf: 2691628 bytes, checksum: ddc3721112e40b4cba75a1389aecaabd (MD5) Previous issue date: 2012-09-04 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / The purpose of this research is to investigate the effect of practicing turned to the Met textual ability, giving some instructions related to structure, organization and linguistics convention into the textual argumentative writing production, pointed to the students of the first grade in high school. The work was developed with eighteen students on the 1st grade in high school between fourteen to sixteen years old in a private school in São Paulo city. Intervention procedures were used as a control to tests before and after. The purpose of the pre-test was to analyze the students knowledge about the argumentative text structure. The first after test intended to analyze whether it happened an improvement in the ability evolution in the argumentative textual production of the student. During the second after test, the purpose was to certify if the results of the first test were kept. Eight interventions were accomplished between the before and after tests with the goal to develop some abilities in the argumentative textual production. The results show us that an intervention directed to a met textual awareness develops an ability of an argumentative textual production. The data explains that the simple way of teaching the system of argumentation, creates the ability of reflex and analyze texts, giving benefits to the learning and production textual of this genre / Esta pesquisa teve como objetivo investigar os efeitos de treinamento voltado para a habilidade metatextual, com instrução quanto à estrutura, à organização e às convenções linguísticas na produção escrita do gênero textual argumentativo, direcionado a alunos do 1º ano do Ensino Médio. Participaram do estudo 18 alunos do 1º ano do Ensino Médio, na faixa etária dos 14 aos 17 anos, de uma escola particular da cidade de São Paulo. Foram utilizados procedimentos de intervenção, com controles de pré e pós-testes. O objetivo do pré-teste foi verificar o conhecimento dos alunos sobre a estrutura do texto argumentativo. O primeiro pósteste, analisou, usando critérios quantitativos, se ocorreu ou não a evolução da habilidade argumentativa na produção textual do aluno. No segundo pós-teste, o objetivo foi observar se os resultados do primeiro pós-teste se mantinham. Entre a realização do pré e dos pós-testes foram realizadas oito intervenções com o intuito de desenvolver habilidades de produção textual argumentativa. Os resultados deste estudo sugerem que uma intervenção voltada para a consciência metatextual desenvolve a capacidade de produção textual argumentativa. Os dados evidenciam que o ato explícito de ensinar o esquema dissertativo da argumentação desenvolve a capacidade de refletir e analisar textos, favorecendo a aprendizagem e a produção deste gênero textual

Made available in DSpace on 2015-04-14T13:39:28Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 466022.pdf: 947272 bytes, checksum: 43973a9095b0e86bd2781be452555114 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2014-12-19 / The meaning of self-exile that has been used in this work, constitutes itself in a kind of exile that is not chosen, neither imposed externally, because its occurrence is related to a structural injunction, from the psychism order. This way, the psychic exile , comdemns the person to a radical intimate weirdness feeling, where the world and the oneself unintelligibility prevails. From the psychoanalytic standpoint, this entity is called psychosis; from the current use of the language standpoint, it is called madness. Through a transversal cut in Elias Canetti biography, from the time the writer lived in and his relations to the German language, culture and literature, it is possible to identify in Peter Kien character and in the novel Auto de F?, the points that support our hypothesis related to the self exile : that the use of the language that Canetti does, enables him to make a perfect representation of the psychic laceration that hits the novel protagonist, according to his relations to the world and to the other characters, as well as the subjective question fulfills the metaphor role of a world under fragmentation, not only from the one that was used as raw material for the work, also from the world today, that is nothing but the logical and direct consequence that was already announced at the beginning of the XX century. / O sentido de ex?lio de si que foi privilegiado neste trabalho se constitui em um tipo de ex?lio que n?o ? escolhido e tampouco ? imposto de fora, pois a sua ocorr?ncia se relaciona com uma injun??o estrutural, da ordem do psiquismo. Sendo assim, o ex?lio ps?quico condena o sujeito a um sentimento de radical estranheza ?ntima onde o que prevalece ? a ininteligibilidade do mundo e de si mesmo. Do ponto de vista da teoria psicanal?tica, esta entidade ? denominada de psicose; do ponto de vista do uso corrente da l?ngua, ? chamada de loucura. Atrav?s de um corte transversal que vai da biografia de Elias Canetti, da ?poca em que o escritor viveu e de suas rela??es com a l?ngua alem? e com a literatura, procuramos identificar no personagem Peter Kien e no romance Auto de F?, os pontos que apoiam a nossa hip?tese em rela??o ao ex?lio de si : que o uso que Canetti faz da linguagem propiciou-lhe fazer uma perfeita representa??o do esfacelamento ps?quico que assola o protagonista do romance em suas rela??es com o mundo e com os outros personagens, assim como esta quest?o subjetiva cumpre o papel de met?fora de um mundo em fragmenta??o, n?o s? daquele que lhe serviu de mat?ria-prima para a confec??o da obra, como do mundo de hoje, que nada mais ? do que a consequ?ncia l?gica e direta do que j? se anunciava no alvorecer do s?culo XX.

Les aciers ferrito-martensitiques sont d’excellents candidats potentiels en tant que matériaux de structure dans les futurs réacteurs de fusion. A ce titre, ils devront résister à des flux intenses de neutrons de 14 MeV qui créeront des cascades de déplacements atomiques et des produits de transmutation tels que l’hélium. Afin de mieux comprendre le comportement de base de ces aciers sous irradiation en présence d’hélium, nous avons étudié les effets de l’hélium et ceux du chrome dans le cadre de ce travail de thèse. Du fer pur et un alliage modèle Fe-5,4%pds Cr ont ainsi été irradiés dans la plateforme JANNuS à 500°C en bi-faisceau avec des ions Fe+ et He+ et en mono-faisceau avec des ions Fe+. L’utilisation de cette plateforme a permis de suivre l’évolution du dommage jusqu’à des doses faibles (1 dpa) et de caractériser la microstructure après irradiation à forte dose (100 dpa). Elle a également permis l’observation in situ dans un MET couplé à deux accélérateurs des effets cinétiques d’implantation/irradiation. La nature et la répartition des défauts d’irradiation ont été déterminés : ce sont essentiellement des boucles de dislocations de vecteur de Burgers de type a<100> et des cavités/bulles. Nous avons montré que la co-implantation d’hélium et l’addition de chrome réduisent la mobilité des boucles. Par ailleurs, avec ou sans hélium, l’addition de chrome réduit le gonflement dans toutes les conditions étudiées. De plus, dans le fer pur irradié avec hélium, un phénomène original de germination hétérogène de cavités/bulles dans les plans des boucles a été mis en évidence. Enfin, nous avons également utilisé le code de dynamique d’amas CRESCENDO pour interpréter les résultats expérimentaux dans le fer pur irradié avec hélium. / Ferritic-martensitic steels are excellent potential candidates for a use as structural materials in future fusion reactors. For this application, they will have to withstand high fluxes of 14 MeV neutrons that will create atomic displacement cascades and transmutation reactions which will produce large quantities of helium. In order to understand the basic mechanisms under irradiation with helium, we have studied the effects of helium and those of chromium. Pure iron and a Fe-5.4 wt. % Cr model alloy were irradiated at the JANNuS platform in dual-beam mode with Fe+ and He+ ions and in single-beam mode with Fe+ ions at 500ºC. This platform enabled us to follow the evolution of damage up to low doses (1 dpa) and to characterize the microstructure at high doses (100 dpa). It also allowed us to observe in situ irradiation/implantation kinetic effects in a TEM coupled to two accelerators. The nature and distribution of irradiation defects was determined: they are essentially dislocation loops with a<100> Burgers vectors and cavities/bubbles. We have demonstrated that the co-implantation of helium and the addition of chromium both reduce the mobility of dislocation loops. The addition of chromium reduces swelling for all the irradiation conditions studied, with or without helium. In pure iron irradiated with helium, an original phenomenon was discovered for the first time: cavities/bubbles nucleate heterogeneously on the planes of the dislocation loops. We have also interpreted our experimental results in pure iron irradiated with helium using the cluster dynamics code CRESCENDO.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-12-17T15:41:47Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 WashingtonCMGpdf.pdf: 1072479 bytes, checksum: d37434aed1d2ae898ee7a9fd3701e0d7 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2009-04-29 / Coordena??o de Aperfei?oamento de Pessoal de N?vel Superior / This work deals with the application of X-Ray Absorption Spectroscopy on the study of the behavior of Cu2+ ions in inverse micelles. The formation of copper nanoparticles in water-in-oil microemulsions in pseudo-ternary systems of cetyl trimethylammonium Bromide (CTAB) surfactant, butanol co-surfactant, heptane as oil phase and aqueous solutions of CuSO4.5H2O, and NaBH4. The microemulsions were prepared with a fixed percentage (60 %) of oil phase and a variable water to tensoative proportion. It was observed an increase on Cu2+ reduction by the sodium borohydride in microemulsions with 13 % of aqueous phase, independent of the reaction time. For the microemulsions in which the aqueous phase is composed only by the CuSO4 solution, it was observed that the color of the solution depends on the water to surfactant ratio. These changes in color were attributed to a competition for the hidratation water between the polar head of the tensoative and Cu2+ ions with the eventual substitution of oxygen by bromine atoms in the first coordination shell of Cu2+ ions / Neste trabalho estudou-se aplica??o da espectroscopia de absor??o de raios x no estudo do comportamento dos ?ons Cu2+ em micelas inversas. Estudou-se a forma??o de nanopart?culas de cobre em microemuls?es ?gua-em-?leo de sistemas pseudo-tern?rios tensoativo (brometo de hexadeciltrimetilam?nio, CTAB)-cotensoativo (butanol) / fase oleosa (heptano) / fase aquosa (solu??es de CuSO4.5H2O, e NaBH4). As microemuls?es foram preparadas fixando em 60% a fase ?leo (Heptano) e variando 40% de fase aquosa com tensoativo/cotensoativo na mesma propor??o, sendo que a fase aquosa do agente redutor NaBH4 foi usada em excesso de 0,4 mol.L-1 e 0,8 mol.L-1 em rela??o 0,2 mol.L-1 de fase aquosa de CuSO4.5H2O. Observou-se uma maior redu??o dos ?ons Cu2+ pelo boridreto de s?dio em microemuls?es com 13% de ?gua, independente do tempo de rea??o. Para as microemuls?es em que a fase aquosa corresponde a solu??o de CuSO4, observou-se uma depend?ncia na colora??o em fun??o da rela??o entre as concentra??es de ?gua/tensoativo. Essa mudan?a de colora??o foi atribu?da a uma competi??o pelas mol?culas de ?guas entre a cabe?a polar do tensoativo e os ?ons Cu2+ com uma eventual substitui??o do oxig?nio da primeira esfera de coordena??o por bromo

Made available in DSpace on 2014-12-17T15:42:07Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 George Queiroz de Brito_DISSERT.PDF: 4768865 bytes, checksum: 4923b44db97f60fb6edf6bd685c61440 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2010-02-26 / This work examined the possibility of using mussel Mytella falcata as bioindicator sample to detect metal ions in several estuaries potiguares, since species substances that accumulate in their tissues due to its characteristics filter feeders have been used for environmental monitoring. The chemometrics by principal components analysis was used to reduce the size of the original data in order to establish a pattern of distribution of metal ion. Samples were collected at three different points in the estuaries Curimata?, Guara?ra-Papeba, Potengi, Galinhos-Guamar? and Piranhas-Assu having been marked with the location using GPS (Global Positioning System). The determination of humidity content and digestion of the samples were performed using methods described in the Compendium of analytical standards of the Institute Adofo Lutz (2005) and the determination of metal ions of the elements Al, Ba, Cd, Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni, Pb, Sn and Zn were performed by optical emission spectrometry with inductively coupled plasma as described by USEPA method 6010C. The results show that it is possible to use this molluscum Mytella falcata in the estuaries of Rio Grande do Norte for the determination of metal ions. The data were subjected to principal components analysis (PCA) which enabled us to verify the distribution pattern of the metal ions studied in several estuaries potiguares and group them according to the metal ions in common with and relate them to the activities in each region / Este trabalho procurou verificar a possibilidade do uso do molusco bivalve Mytella falcata como amostra bioindicadora para detectar ?ons met?licos em v?rios estu?rios potiguares, pois as esp?cies que acumulam subst?ncias em seus tecidos devido as suas caracter?sticas filtradoras tem sido utilizadas para o monitoramento ambiental. A quimiometria atrav?s da an?lise de componentes principais foi utilizada para reduzir a dimens?o dos dados originais com a finalidade de estabelecer um padr?o de distribui??o dos ?ons met?licos estudados. As amostras foram coletadas em tr?s pontos diferentes nos estu?rios Curimata?, Guara?ra-Papeba, Potengi, Galinhos-Guamar? e Piranhas-Assu tendo o local sido marcado com a utiliza??o de GPS (Global Positioning System). A determina??o do teor de umidade e a digest?o das amostras foram realizadas segundo metodologia descrita no comp?ndio de normas anal?ticas do Instituto Adofo Lutz (2005) e a determina??o dos ?ons met?licos dos elementos Al, Ba, Cd, Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni, Pb, Sn e Zn foram realizadas por espectrometria de emiss?o ?tica com plasma acoplado indutivamente como descrito pela metodologia USEPA 6010C. Os resultados obtidos mostram que ? poss?vel utilizar o molusco Mytella falcata presente nos estu?rios do Estado do Rio Grande do Norte para a determina??o de ?ons met?licos. Os dados foram submetidos ? an?lise de componentes principais (PCA) o que possibilitou verificarmos o padr?o de distribui??o dos ?ons met?licos estudados nos v?rios estu?rios potiguares e agrup?-los de acordo com os ?ons met?licos em comum e relacionar a presen?a com as atividades desenvolvidas em cada regi?o

Made available in DSpace on 2014-12-17T15:42:16Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 LuizaPFCG_TESE.pdf: 3362653 bytes, checksum: 0de0a428d24980a5f9b2bf94d2e9214f (MD5) Previous issue date: 2012-08-23 / To overcome the challenge of meeting growing energy demand in a sustainable way, biodiesel has shown very promising as alternative energy can replace fossil fuels, even partially. Industrially, the biodiesel is produced by homogeneous transesterification reaction of vegetable oils in the presence of basic species used as catalysts. However, this process is the need for purification of the esters obtained and the removal of glycerin formed after the reaction. This context, the alternative catalysts have that can improve the process of biodiesel production, aiming to reduce costs and facilitate its production. In this study, the AlSBA-15 support with Si / Al ratio = 50 was synthesized, as like as the heterogeneous catalysts of zinc oxide and magnesium supported on mesoporous AlSBA-15 silica, in the concentrations of 5, 10, 15 and 30 %, relative to the support. The textural properties and structural characterization of catalysts and supports were determined by techniques: X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM) coupled to the chemical analyzer, adsorption / desorption of N2, thermal analysis (TG / DTG), absorption spectroscopy in the infrared (FTIR) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). Characterization results indicated that the support AlSBA-15 retained the hexagonal ordered after the incorporation of zinc oxide and magnesium oxide in the holder. For heterogeneous catalysts, ZnO-AlSBA-15, that was observed the presence of zinc oxide nanoparticles dispersed in the surface and interior channels of the mesoporous and microporous support. The catalytic activity was evaluated by the transesterification reaction of sunflower oil via methylic route, and some reaction parameters were optimized with the most active catalyst in biodiesel production by sunflower oil. For the series of heterogeneous catalysts, the sample with 30 % ZnO supported on AlSBA-15 showed a better conversion of triglyceride to methyl esters, about 95.41 % of reaction conditions: temperature 175 ?C, with molar ratio of 42:1, stirring at 200 rpm and under a pressure of 14 bar for 6 h. The catalyst MgO-AlSBA-15 showed no catalytic activity in the studied reactions / Para superar o desafio de atender a crescente demanda por energia de forma sustent?vel, o biodiesel tem se demonstrado bastante promissor como alternativa energ?tica, que possa substituir os combust?veis fosseis, mesmo que parcialmente. Industrialmente, o biodiesel ? produzido atrav?s de rea??o homog?nea de transesterifica??o de ?leos vegetais na presen?a de esp?cies b?sicas utilizadas como catalisadores. Entretanto, este processo h? a necessidade de purifica??o dos ?steres obtidos e a remo??o da glicerina formada ap?s a rea??o. Diante deste contexto, tem-se buscado catalisadores alternativos, que possa aprimorar o processo de produ??o de biodiesel, visando diminuir os custos e facilitar a sua produ??o. Neste trabalho, foram sintetizados o suporte AlSBA-15 na raz?o Si/Al = 50, e os catalisadores heterog?neos de ?xido de zinco e de magn?sio suportado sobre s?lica mesoporosa AlSBA-15, nas concentra??o de 5, 10, 15 e 30 %, com rela??o ao suporte. As propriedades texturais e a caracteriza??o estrutural dos catalisadores e do suporte foram determinadas pelas t?cnicas de: difratometria de raios X (DRX), microscopia eletr?nica de varredura (MEV), microscopia eletr?nica de transmiss?o (MET) acoplada ao analisador qu?mico, adsor??o/dessor??o de N2, an?lise t?rmica (TG/DTG), espectroscopia de absor??o na regi?o do infravermelho (FTIR) e espectroscopia fotoeletr?nica de raios X (XPS). Os resultados de caracteriza??o indicaram que o suporte AlSBA-15 preservou a estrutura hexagonal ordenada, ap?s a incorpora??o do ?xido de zinco e do ?xido de magn?sio no suporte. Em rela??o aos catalisadores heterog?neos, ZnO-AlSBA-15, observou-se a presen?a de nanopart?culas de ?xido de zinco dispersas na superf?cie e no interior dos canais microporosos e mesoporosos do suporte. A atividade catal?tica foi avaliada pela rea??o de transesterifica??o do ?leo de girassol via rota met?lica, e alguns par?metros reacionais foram otimizados com o catalisador mais ativo na produ??o de biodiesel pelo ?leo de girassol. Para as s?ries de catalisadores heterog?neos, a amostra com 30 % ZnO suportado na AlSBA-15 apresentou melhor convers?o dos triglicer?deos em ?steres met?licos, cerca de 95,41 %, nas condi??es reacional de: temperatura de 175 ?C, com raz?o molar de 42:1, em agita??o de 200 rpm e sob press?o de 14 bar durante 6 h. O catalisador MgO-AlSBA-15 n?o apresentou atividade catal?tica nas rea??es estudadas

Diferenças no timing da melanização e esclerotização do exoesqueleto são evidentes quando se compara a morfologia externa de abelhas de hábitos sociais e as solitárias. A esta diferença convencionamos chamar de heterocronia da maturação cuticular, o termo heterocronia significando variações no tempo relativo, ou ritmo, de um evento ontogenético em relação ao ancestral ou entre taxons. Propusemos que as abelhas sociais, que após a ecdise permanecem na colônia por vários dias, alcançariam a maturidade de alguns sistemas orgânicos, entre eles o tegumento, muito mais tarde que as espécies de abelhas solitárias que ao emergir partem imediatamente para atividades extra-nidais. Neste contexto, o objetivo deste trabalho consistiu em testar esta hipótese utilizando o tegumento em maturação das espécies de abelhas sociais, Apis mellifera e Frieseomelitta varia, e da espécie solitária Centris analis, em estudos comparativos de expressão gênica, ultraestrutura e quantificação de hidrocarbonetos cuticulares (CHCs). Para isto utilizamos sequenciamento de mRNA (RNA-seq), microscopia eletrônica de transmissão (MET) e cromatografia de gás e espectrometria de massas (CG/MS). Os perfis de expressão de genes da via de melanização/esclerotização cuticular (ebony e tan) diferenciaram as espécies sociais da solitária, assim como a expressão de genes com função na via de metabolismo de quitina (Cda5, Idgf4 e chitooligosacchariodolytic-domain-like) e de genes codificadores de proteínas estruturais da cutícula (CPR14, CPR17, CPR18, CPR25, CPR23, CPR26, Apd-3 e Apd-like). Genes com função na regulação da maturação cuticular (FTZ-F1, E74, Hr46 e Hr4) se mostraram co-expressos nas espécies sociais e os perfis de expressão destes genes, exceto Hr46, e de outros reguladores (Ethr, Hr38, Rickets e Ptx-1) também diferenciaram as espécies sociais da solitária. Ressaltamos em nossas análises os genes do ciclo circadiano, cuja expressão tem relação com a deposição de quitina cuticular, além de genes de vias de pigmentação não melanínicas. As análises de MET, abrangendo outras três espécies de abelhas (Bombus brasilienses: primitivamente eussocial; Euglossa cordata: facultativamente social; Tetrapedia diversipes: solitária), mostraram diferenças consistentes entre a ultraestrutura e espessura das cutículas das espécies sociais e solitárias, o que reforçou nossos resultados de RNA-seq. A quantificação absoluta dos CHCs diferenciou as abelhas sociais da solitária, consistente com a hipótese de heterocronia da maturação cuticular e com os perfis de expressão de genes envolvidos na biossíntese de CHCs. Assim, além de desvendar transcriptomas de tegumento de três espécies de abelhas, a comparação da expressão gênica aliada à análise de ultraestrutura da cutícula e quantificação de CHCs levaram à caracterização de diferenças no processo de maturação cuticular entre as espécies sociais e solitárias / Differences in the timing of exoskeleton melanization and sclerotization processes are evident when comparing the external morphology of social and solitary bee species. Such differences may constitute a relevant example of cuticular maturation heterochrony, this term referring to a genetic change in timing of an ontogenetic process relative to an ancestor or between taxons. We proposed that social bees, which remain protected inside the colony for many days before initiating outside nest activities, would reach the maturity of some organic systems, such as the integument (epidermis and cuticle), later than solitary bees, which start such activities immediately after ecdysis. We tested this hypothesis in a comparative study of the developing integument of eusocial bees, Apis mellifera and Frieseomelitta varia, and the solitary bee Centris analis. Using RNA-seq, we verified that the expression profiles of genes involved in cuticular melanization and sclerotization (ebony and tan), chitin deposition and organization (Cda5, Idgf4, chitooligosacchariodolytic-domain-like), and cuticle formation (CPR14, CPR17, CPR18, CPR25, CPR23, CPE26, Apd-3, Apd-like) were positively, correlated between the two eusocial species, but not between the eusocial and the solitary species. Some of the genes with roles in regulating exoskeleton maturation (FTZ-F1, E74, Hr46, Hr4) were co-expressed only in the eusocial species. The expression profiles of these genes (except Hr46) and other regulatory genes (Ethr, Hr38, Rickets, Ptx-1) were also positively correlated exclusively in the eusocial bees. We also highlighted the expression of genes involved in non-melanin pigment production and the expression of circadian rhythm genes that could be related to chitin layers deposition. Transmission electron microscopy analysis of the integument of the two eusocial and the solitary bee species, in addition to other three bee species (the primitively eusocial Bombus brasilienses; the facultatively social Euglossa cordata; the solitary bee Tetrapedia diversipes), showed differences in cuticle ultrastructure and thickness, thus supporting the RNA-seq data. In agreement with our hypothesis, CHC quantifications were consistent with the expression levels of genes involved in CHC biosynthesis, thus differentiating the superficial cuticle layer of the eusocial and solitary species. Together, the integument transcriptomes, ultrastructure, and CHC quantification allowed us to characterize differences in the timing of cuticle maturation in social and solitary bees

Les techniques d'analyse des images présentées dans cette thèse sont élaborées dans le cadre du Projet Européen dédié au développement d'une plateforme automatique pour l'évaluation de la cristallisation des protéines membranaires. Un grand nombre d'échantillons est simultanément produit et évalué par microscopie électronique en transmission (MET). Pour rendre cette tache automatique, une analyse en ligne des images acquises est indispensable ; des régions d'intérêt essentielles pour le pilotage du microscope sont progressivement sélectionnées afin d'évaluer les cristaux de protéines a fort grossissement.L'observation de l'échantillon à moyen grossissement fournit des informations nécessaires pour la caractérisation du succès de la cristallisation 2D. Les objets résultants, et en particulier le gris. De plus, ces membranes sont pratiquement transparentes aux électrons et donc, apparaissent faiblement contrastées.Cette thèse présente un ensemble de techniques de traitement d'images pour leur analyse à moyen grossissement (5-15 nm/pixel). La contribution originale de ce travail est située sur i) une évaluation statistique des contours en mesurant la corrélation entre les niveaux de gris proche du contour et un filtre de gradient pour réduire le sur segmentation, ii) la reconnaissance des objets de l'image, iii) une étude préliminaire de classification. Cette chaîne est en cours de validation sur un prototype. / The image analysis techniques presented in the présent thesis have been developed as part of a European projeet dedicated to the development of an automatic membrane protein crystallization pipeline. A large number of samples is simultaneously produced and assessed by transmission electron microscope (TEM) screening. Automating this fast step implicates an on-fine analysis of acquired images to assure the microscope control by selecting the regions to be observed at high magnification and identify the components for specimen characterization.The observation of the sample at medium magnification provides the information that is essential to characterize the success of the 2D crystallization. The resulting objects, and especially the artificial membranes, are identifiable at this scale. These latter present only a few characteristic signatures, appearing in an extremely noisy context with gray-level fluctuations. Moreover they are practically transparent to electrons yielding low contrast. This thesis presents an ensemble of image processing techniques to analyze medium magnification images (5-15 nm/pixel). The original contribution of this work lies in: i) a statistical evaluation of contours by measuring the correlation between gray-levels of neighbouring pixels to the contour and a gradient signal for over-segmentation reduction, ii) the recognition of foreground entities of the image and iii) an initial study for their classification. This chain has been already tested on-line on a prototype and is currently evaluated.