In September of 1777, the British and American Armies were engaged in a series of battles known as the Philadelphia Campaign. Although neither the largest engagement of the campaign nor of the American Revolution, the Battle of Paoli gained notoriety due to the nature of the conflict. The British Army, led by General Charles Gray, conducted a midnight bayonet raid on General Anthony Wayne’s encamped Pennsylvanians. The brutality of the night resulted in the Battle becoming recognized as the Paoli Massacre. This dissertation provides an archaeological exploration of the Battle of Paoli through many lenses, contexts, and throughout time. First, the research illustrates the necessity for studying conflict sites in a more holistic manner. In this realm, archaeologists must consider not only the contexts of the battle, but also the cultural contexts that shaped how warfare occurred and was experienced. Therefore, archaeological fieldwork was performed on the Paoli Battlefield as well as at the home site of the 18th century property owner. This methodology provides the ability to relate the cultural landscape to the landscape of the battle. Additionally, this dissertation applies both historical and archaeological methods to examine and interpret the memory associated with the battle. The Battle of Paoli was short in duration, but the memory of the event and the commemorations associated with its remembrance spans over two-hundred forty years. Thus, this dissertation seeks to expand the understanding of conflict sites beyond a single event to include interpretations regarding broader cultural realties that predate the conflict, in addition to the remembrance practices that influence society well beyond the cessation of conflict. / Anthropology

Many scholars have written about the counterinsurgency phase of the Philippine- American War (1899-1902). Military historians often downplayed the impact of human rights abuses, while emphasizing the success of the U.S. Army’s counterinsurgency instead. In contrast, social historians frequently focused on human rights abuses at the expense of understanding the U.S. Army’s counterinsurgency efforts. Unlike the majority of earlier works, this thesis unifies military, social, and legal history to primarily answer these questions: what significant factors led U.S. soldiers to commit human rights abuses during the war, and at what cost did the U.S. pacify the Filipino rebellion? The war was successfully waged at the tactical, operational, and strategic level, but wavered at the grand strategic level.1 This study argues that racism, ambiguous rules and regulations, and a breakdown of discipline contributed to U.S. soldiers committing human rights abuses against Filipinos during the counterinsurgency. Primary sources from the perspectives of American policy makers, military leaders, and common soldiers—in addition to documents on U.S. Army regulations and its past traditions—reveal a comprehensive story of what happened during this conflict. The U.S. Army’s abuse were not a historical anomaly, but a growing trend extending from nineteenth century conflicts against other races. The counterinsurgency revealed that beneath the stated principles of 1 For the purposes of this thesis, grand strategy is “the direction and use made of any and all of the assets of a security community, including its military instruments, for the purposes of policy as decided by politics.” This differs from the strategic level of war, which is the direction and exclusive use of military forces for the purposes of policy as decided by politics. Finally, the operational level is the level of war where the tasks, decided by strategy, are coordinated and individual units are commanded. These units, in turn, engaging in tactics to achieve operational objectives. Colin S. Gray, The Future of Strategy (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2015), 29, 47. iii America’s benevolent mission, violent racial underpinnings existed in U.S. desires for global and domestic hegemony. The U.S. Army’s counterinsurgency resulted in a flawed victory, won at the cost of combatants, innocent civilians, and American idealism. / History

The scope of this research deals with the notion that military service yields higher levels of earnings for individuals who successfully transition into the civilian labor force. Through the Human Capital Theory (HCT) lens, this study assessed the relationship between military connection and civilian labor force economic outcomes for women. The results of this study inform policy makers, military recruiters, civilian employers, and college administrators, with insights into how to support military connected women’s transition into the civilian workforce. This study hypothesized that military service along with the attainment of at least a bachelor’s degree would serve as a bridge to higher pay for women after transitioning into the civilian labor force. Drawing on data from the 2017 National Survey of College Graduates (NSCG), the focus of this quantitative study was to investigate how a college education affects civilian earnings. This study compared labor market outcomes between military connected women and non- military connected individuals who have earned at least a bachelor’s degree to determine if military service yields an earnings premium. This analysis determined that in general military connected women do not experience an earnings premium over military connected men and non- military connected individuals when combining military service and education after transitioning into the civilian labor force. Furthermore, this study revealed military does not act as a bridge to higher civilian labor force earnings for women. This suggests that a bridging environment from military service does not exist for women. Overall this study found that an individual’s military connection does not hinder their ability to successfully transition into the civilian labor force. However, it does suggest that military service does not act as a mechanism to move military connected job candidates to the front of the line. / Educational Leadership

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Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Family Studies and Human Services / Farrell J. Webb / This study examined the relationships between and among the factors of compassion fatigue, burnout, compassion satisfaction and spiritual resiliency in association with the care work of United States Army chaplains who minister to soldiers, families, and Department of the Army (DA) civilians in the military. This investigation breaks new ground in understanding the factors that affect chaplain care work. Data were collected from 408 active duty Army chaplains who responded to and completed the online survey. Information about rank, years of service, battle fatigue/stress and number of deployments was collected. These data along with specific scales were combined into the Chaplain Care Work Model—the tool used in this investigation. Scores from three measurement instruments: Professional Quality of Life Scale R-IV, Spiritual Well-Being Scale, and the Resilience Scale were used to test the hypotheses for this study. Of particular interest, the measurement scales of Spiritual Well-Being and Resiliency were combined to develop a new measurement construct labeled Spiritual Resiliency. The model of Chaplain Care Work was tested using path analysis and structural equation modeling techniques to illustrate the relationships of the predictors (constructed from latent variables—Chaplaincy Status, Deployment Status, and Self Care) to the outcome measure of Care Work (also a latent variable). Overall 85% of the variance in care work can be attributed to the model’s predictors, adding to the value of examining care work among those who provide direct service to others. Findings indicated that spiritual resiliency ebbed and flowed as a function of the different levels of compassion fatigue, burnout, and compassion satisfaction experienced by the chaplains because of their care work. Furthermore, number of deployments and experience (years of chaplain service) had significant relationships with compassion fatigue and burnout. Results from the findings were underpinned by explicit narrative comments provided by chaplains. These comments provided rich material in support of the significant relationships discovered in this study, and offered insights into how care work is both meaningful and necessary for maintaining a healthier chaplaincy.

Master of Science / Department of Psychological Sciences / Clive J. A. Fullagar / This mixed-methods study consisted of two phases. First, interviews were conducted with ROTC instructors responsible for organizational socialization of newcomers to the U.S. Army and U.S. Air Force. This data shaped surveys given to organizational newcomers in phase II, which measured organizational culture and cognitive leadership schemas. It was hypothesized that implicit leadership theories (ILTs) would reflect respective organizational cultures. Although this was supported in the qualitative results from Phase I, it was not supported in the quantitative results from Phase II. However, analyses showed that leadership is still perceived as a masculine role in both the U.S. Army and U.S. Air Force, as was hypothesized. It was also hypothesized that leaders in line occupations would be seen as better leaders than leaders in staff occupations. This was supported for the Air Force sample, but not the Army sample. During the interviews, ROTC instructors asserted that male and female leaders were equally capable, and that line and staff leaders were equally capable. However, questioning revealed that organizational stereotypes still defined the quintessential leader as a male in a line occupation, although females had more opportunities to fill those key occupations in the Air Force than in the Army, at the time of this study. This discrepancy, along with the discrepancies in results between the qualitative and quantitative data, indicate that organizational culture has perhaps changed at the levels of visible artifacts and espoused values with respect to diversity, but has not yet changed at the fundamental level of basic assumptions.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Security Studies / Dale R. Herspring / North Korea and the ruling Kim regime continues to present a unique security dilemma to both East Asia and the international community. The Kim regime's actions, which often include hostile military and diplomatic foreign policy actions, often seem inconsistent with parallel efforts to peacefully engage the international community. This research examines the following question: what has been the historic relationship between North Korea’s domestic conditions and its propensity to engage in “hostile” diplomatic and military activities? I also consider whether the concept of diversionary theory, the idea that leaders pursue external conflict when faced with domestic problems, is an explanation for these actions. The study initially proposes there is a relationship between North Korea’s domestic challenges and its willingness to engage in conflict activities aimed primarily at South Korea and the United States. To test these ideas, I conduct a quantitative analysis of North Korean event data collected from both US and Korean sources from 1960-2011 and a qualitative analysis of three case studies. My findings provide only limited support to the idea that internal conditions faced by the Kim regime influence its conflict behavior. More influential are a select number of external conditions, especially those involving South Korea, which often prompt North Korean responses and heightened conflict levels. This research also finds that the ruling Kim regime has often turned to diversion-type actions as a means to achieve domestic goals, yet diversionary theory itself is insufficient to explain these activities. North Korea represents an ongoing security dilemma for both East Asia and the international community and in this study, I demonstrate how historical and political science methods can be used to examine and explain the actions of this reclusive state.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Family Studies & Human Services / Sonya L. Britt / Briana S. Nelson-Goff / The current three essay dissertation researched the financial behaviors of military service members before and after deployment using primary data collected at a Midwestern U.S. Army installation. The introduction (Chapter 1) reviewed the two financial surveys administered to Soldiers before (N = 701) and after (N = 670) they left for a yearlong deployment to a war zone. The first essay (Chapter 2) explored the financial behaviors, financial knowledge, and financial anxiety as they relate to rank and deployment. The results suggested that financial behaviors after deployment (Time 2) were significantly better than financial behaviors before deployment (Time 1). Rank had a positive effect on increased subjective financial knowledge where all ranks above privates (E1 to E2) had greater financial knowledge. Privates first class, specialists, and corporals (E3 to E4) had significantly lower financial knowledge than their direct supervisors, sergeants and staff sergeants (E5 to E6). Finally, Soldiers reported more financial anxiety before deployment (Time 1) than after deployment (Time 2). Using the framework of social learning theory, the second essay (Chapter 3) expanded the research of military financial behaviors before deployment to more fully understand stress and other factors that influence financial behavior outcomes. Results suggested that past behaviors and some personal factors played a significant role in Soldiers’ financial behaviors. Higher levels of subjective financial knowledge, more internal locus of control, and lower levels of financial anxiety all had a positive effect on financial behavior outcomes. The past behaviors variable had the most explanatory value in Soldiers’ financial behaviors before deployment. Soldiers with any amount of credit card debt had worse financial behaviors compared to Soldiers with no credit card debt, while Soldiers with greater amounts of emergency financial savings were more likely to have better financial behaviors than those who did not have any emergency financial savings. The final essay (Chapter 4) studied the factors that influenced financial behavior outcomes of both Soldiers and college students. This essay used primary data from a college student sample to compare to the before deployment (Time 1) survey data of Soldiers. Findings reported that past behaviors and some personal factors played a significant role in the financial behavior outcomes. Soldiers and college students with higher levels of subjective financial knowledge, more internal locus of control, and lower financial anxiety reported positive financial behaviors The most explanatory concept was that of past behaviors, which revealed that participants with no credit card debt had better financial behaviors compared to respondents who had any level of credit card debt. The conclusion (Chapter 5) highlights the findings of all three essays, which contribute both to the financial behavior literature. These papers also contribute to the research on the personal financial matters of service members. The research has direct implications for policy makers, military leaders, service providers, and financial planners and counselors.

U.S. Army Regulations require soldiers to be fit, as excessive weight negatively impacts their readiness, health, and morale. A quantitative study examined if personal, behavioral, and/or environmental factors predict a soldier's self-efficacy and body mass index. Data were obtained from 117 soldiers on 6 scales: the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery, the Army Physical Fitness Test, the General Self-Efficacy Scale, the Stress Management Questionnaire, the Lifestyle Assessment Inventory, and the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire. Multiple regression analysis was used to determine if personal (intellectual capabilities and physical fitness), behavioral (lifestyle and stress management), and/or environmental (supervisor leadership) factors predict self-efficacy and body mass index in a convenience sample of battalion personnel. The analysis showed that lifestyle and stress management behavioral factors predict self-efficacy, whereas physical fitness predicts body mass index. In addition, there were significant correlations between self-efficacy, personal factors, and behavioral factors; between personal factors, behavioral factors, and body mass index; and between behavioral and environmental factors. Positive social change implications include the U.S. Army using these findings to promote healthy lifestyles, reduce stress, and increase physical fitness among soldiers to achieve higher self-efficacy and a lower body mass index. These findings also suggest that the military services would see better physical readiness by considering personal, behavioral, and environmental factors to meet standards.

Suicidal Behavior in the U.S. Army is a problem that persists despite significant efforts to promote help-seeking behaviors and the investment of millions of dollars to develop resilience-building interventions. Evidence-based literature supports the use of reasons for living as a protective factor against suicidal behavior in clinical and nonclinical samples, yet it has rarely been studied in an active duty (AD) Army population. This study examined the relationship between self-reported reasons for living and self-reported suicidal behavior, to determine if high levels of reasons for living correlated with low risk of suicidal behavior, over and above demographics, depression, stressful life events, and social support, using standardized questionnaires. The study sample consisted of 244 AD Army soldiers attending the Warrior Leadership Course in Germany. The results analysis showed that reasons for living were inversely related to suicidal behavior among this sample. Although African American soldiers scored higher on measures of reasons for living and suicidal behavior, demographic variables did not significantly predict suicidal behavior. Reasons for living accounted for a unique amount of variance in suicidal behavior; however, depression, stressful life events, and social support were better predictors. This study demonstrates the benefits of incorporating reasons for living in military research and practice, as efforts are made to identify AD Army personnel at risk for suicide. The study findings also support the claim that examining protective and risk factors supersedes efforts to study risk factors alone. It promotes positive social change by informing efforts to develop comprehensive suicide prevention policies, programs, and procedures aimed at effectively reducing the rate of suicide in the U.S. Army.