A via de administração vaginal pode ser considerada uma alternativa para diversos tratamentos, tanto de ação farmacológica local como sistêmica. No entanto, o tempo de permanência do fármaco no local da aplicação e a eficácia esperada representam um desafio para o desenvolvimento de formulações. O objetivo deste trabalho foi desenvolver nanocápsulas de superfície catiônica (EUDRAGIT® RS 100) ou aniônica (EUDRAGIT® S 100), contendo ou não o marcador de fluorescência Vermelho do Nilo como um modelo de fármaco lipofílico, e incorporar essas partículas em hidrogéis de quitosana, a fim de aumentar o tempo de residência da formulação na mucosa vaginal, devido às propriedades mucoadesivas desse polímero. Diversas formulações foram preparadas com concentrações crescentes de quitosana e analisadas em termos de pH e comportamento reológico, a fim de selecionar a mais adequada para aplicação vaginal. Os hidrogéis foram produzidos com quitosana 2,5% p/p, com ou sem nanocápsulas. Foi avaliada a aderência (mucoadesividade e perfil lavabilidade) e a capacidade de penetração (microscopia confocal e extração seguido de quantificação do vermelho do nilo) das formulações quando aplicadas em mucosa vaginal de porcas. As suspensões de nanocápsulas apresentaram diâmetro em torno de 200 nm e potencial zeta entre +13 mV (NC-RS) e -13 mV( NC-S) e valores de pH entre 5,1 e 6,2. A formulação de quitosana apresentou viscosidade característica e pH ácido (em torno de 4,5), ideal para aplicação vaginal. Os testes de mucoadesão mostraram que as formulações propostas contendo nanocápsulas poliméricas apresentaram maior adesividade em mucosa vaginal em comparação com a formulação composta somente de quitosana. Através do experimento de lavabilidade não foram encontradas diferenças significativas entre as formulações. No entanto, as técnicas de microscopia confocal e a quantificação após a extração de fluorescência a partir da mucosa demonstraram uma maior penetração de vermelho do nilo quando nanoencapsulado, especialmente em nanocápsulas catiônicas. As formulações desenvolvidas com base no veículo do hidrogel de quitosana e nanocápsulas poliméricas, especialmente as nanocápsulas catiônicas, demonstraram aplicabilidade para a entrega de substâncias hidrofóbicas pela via vaginal. Palavras-chave: quitosana, nanocápsuas, via vaginal, EUDRAGIT® RS100, EUDRAGIT® S100. / The vaginal route of administration might be an alternative for several treatments, either for local or systemic pharmacological effect. However, the permanence of the drug at the site of application and its expected effectiveness represent a challenge in the development of formulations. Thus, the objective of this work was to develop nanocapsules with cationic or anionic surface charge, containing or not nile red as a model of lipophilic substance, and to incorporate such particles into chitosan vehicle in order to increase the residence time of the formulation due to chitosan mucoadhesive properties. Several formulations prepared with increasing chitosan concentrations were analyzed in terms of pH and rheological behaviour in order to select the most suitable one for vaginal application. Gel formulations were produced with chitosan at 2.5% w/w, with or without nanocapsules. The adhesion (tensile stress test and washability profile) and penetration enhancement properties (confocal microscopy- CLSM and extraction followed by quantification) of the formuations, when applied on porcine vaginal mucosa, were evaluated. The nanocapsule suspensions presented adequate properties and pH values around 5.1 and 6.2. The chitosan formulation presented a characteristic viscosity and an acid pH (around 4.5), which is suitable for vaginal application. Mucoadhesion tests showed that the proposed formulations containing polymeric nanocapsules had higher adhesion to the vaginal mucosa in comparison with the formulation containing only chitosan. The washability evaluation showed no significant differences between the formulations. However, the confocal microscopy and the fluorescence quantification after extraction from the mucosa showed higher penetration of nile red when nanoencapsulated, especially into cationic-charged nanocapsules. The formulations developed, based on chitosan gel vehicle and polymeric nanocapsules, especially the cationic nanocapsules, demonstrated applicability for the vaginal delivery of hydrophobic substances.

Les bactéries multirésistantes (BMR) représentent un véritable problème de santé publique. Les antibiotiques conventionnels commencent à devenir inefficaces et des bactéries qu’à une époque étaient contrôlées, commencent à devenir de plus en plus pathogènes. L’utilisation des actifs dérivant des plantes comme certains composants issus des huiles essentielles ont déjà démontré une action bactérienne contre plusieurs bactéries dites résistantes. Pour l’administration de ces actifs, à nature lipophile, nous les avons encapsulés à l’intérieur des nanocapsules au cœur lipidique (NCL) grâce à une modification de la méthode d’inversion de phase développé dans le laboratoire Inserm U1066 au début des années 2000. Le but de cette thèse est de trouver une association avec des antibiotiques qui puisse s’avérer synergique contre des BMR. Nous avons obtenu une synergie sur plusieurs souches bactériennes avec un mélange avec trois actifs différents : l’eugénol, le carvacrol et le cinnamaldéhyde et la doxycycline (antibiotique bactériostatique de la famille des tetracyclines). Cette synergie a été également testée in vivo sur un modèle pneumopatique de souris avec des résultats qui semblent en concordance avec les résultats in vitro. Nous nous sommes servis des méthodes physico-chimiques comme l’angle de contact ou la mobilité électrophorétique, dans le but d’étudier les interactions entre les NCL et les bactéries. Les résultats obtenus semblent indiquer que les NCL recouvrent la surface de la bactérie et libèrent leurs actifs, néanmoins nous n’écartons pas l’hypothèse qu’une certaine quantité des NCL puisse aussi pénétrer la bactérie. / Multiresistant bacteria (MRB) present today a public health problem. Some antibiotics are ineffective and bacteria formerly controlled, begin to become more and more pathogenic. The use of drugs derived from plants as some components from essential oils have demonstrated a bactericidal effect against resistant bacteria.For the administration of these lipophilic drugs, they have been encapsulated in the core of lipidnanocapsules (LNC), formulated via the phase inversion method. This method was developed in the laboratory Inserm U1066 in the early 2000s.The aim of this thesis is to find a combination with an antibiotic that prove to be synergistic against MRB. We have found a synergistic effect with the combination of doxycycline (bacteriostatic antibiotic of the tetracycline class) and the LNC of a mixture of three aromatic components of essential oils (eugenol,carvacrol and cinnamaldehyde). This synergy was also tested in vivo in a pneumopathicmice model with interesting results which appear consistent with in vitro results.The interactions between LNC and bacteria were studied using physicochemical method as electrophoretic mobility and contact angle measurement. Obtained results suggest that LNC cover the surface of the bacteria and release the aromatic components. These results are also observed by confocal microscopy. Nevertheless, we also accept the hypothesis that, a certain amount of LNC can cross the bacteria.

Le cancer est un problème de santé publique dans le monde entier et d'importantes ressources en soins de santé sont dépensées pour le diagnostic. Plus précoce sera le dépistage des tumeurs, meilleures sont les chances de rémission sans rechute. Les techniques d'imagerie permettent de suivre l’évolution du traitement et de réorienter la stratégie en cas d’échec. En combinaison avec des agents de contraste ciblés, les modalités d'imagerie permettent même de sonder les structures à l’échelle moléculaires ce qui pourrait laisser envisager un traitement personnalisé du cancer [1, 2]. L’imagerie par résonance magnétique (IRM) et l’échographie sont deux techniques complémentaires et non invasives qui permettent la détection de plusieurs cancers (sein, colon, cerveau ...). L'échographie est rentable, portable et fournit, en temps reel, des informations anatomiques. L'IRM profite d’une pénétration profonde dans les tissus mous, d’un contraste élevé et d’une meilleure sensibilité que l’échographie [3]. Néanmoins, l'utilisation de ces techniques en combinaison avec des agents de contraste est difficile, surtout parce que la concentration locale atteint dans la tumeur est souvent inférieure à la plage de sensibilité de détection [4]. Au cours des 20 dernières années, les agents de contraste multifonctionnels ont été construits sur mesure pour atteindre une accumulation préférentielle dans les tissus malades [5]. Dans cette étude, des stratégies de ciblage passif et actif de la tumeur ont été envisagées pour renforcer la concentration locale de nanocapsules polymère, contenant un noyau liquide de bromure de perfluorooctyle (PFOB). L’approche de ciblage passif est basée sur l’effet de pénétration et la rétention accrue (EPR). Les nanocapsules doivent avoir un diamètre inférieur à 400nm une demi-vie plasmatique prolongée. L’approche de ciblage actif est basée sur la reconnaissance spécifique d’un ligand pour une cible biologique surexprimée par la tumeur ou la néovascularisation. Pour le ciblage passif, les nanocapsules ont été préparées avec PLGA-b-PEG par un procédé d'émulsion-évaporation. La morphologie cœur-couronne a été confirmée par RMN du Fluor et cryo microscopie électronique. La surface des nanocapsules est densément couverte par des chaînes de PEG qui adoptent une conformation en brosse, telle qu'évaluée par XPS et diffusion des neutrons aux petits angles. La furtivité des nanocapsules a été démontrée in vitro par des mesures d'activation du complément et in vivo par une étude cinétique de la capture hépatique, réalisée après l'administration intraveineuse de nanocapsules chez la souris nude. L'imagerie des tumeurs, par IRM du Fluor, a révélé que seulement 1% de la dose injectée a été accumulée dans le tissu malade. Par échographie aucun réhaussement du contraste n’a été observé. Ainsi, une autre approche de ciblage a été nécessaire afin d’augmenter l’accumulation des nanocapsules au sein de la tumeur. Les nanocapsules ont été fonctionnalisées avec un peptide RGD (Arginine-Glycine-Acide aspartique afin de cibler les intégrines avß3, qui sont des protéines transmembranaires surexprimées par les néovaisseaux. Deux stratégies, appelées bottom-up et top-down, ont été élaborées pour mener à une décoration satisfaisante du peptide à la surface des nanocapsules. L'efficacité du couplage a été mesurée par RMN du proton. La morphologie des nanocapsules a été étudiée par CryoTEM. / Cancer is a worldwide public health concern and significant health care resources are spent on diagnosis. The sooner the tumor detection, the better the chance of remission without relapse. Furthermore, imaging modalities facilitate the treatment monitoring and feedback, and support decision making to change the strategy when the treatment fails. When used in combination with targeted contrast agents, imaging modalities even enable to probe molecular structures on specific cells opening the doors to personalized cancer therapy [1, 2]. Ultrasonography and Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) are two complementary and non invasive imaging modalities, which allow the detection of a broad range of cancers (breast, colon, brain…). Ultrasonography is cost-effective, portable and provides real-time anatomical information. MRI imparts deep penetration into soft tissues with high contrast and better sensitivity [3]. Nevertheless the use of these techniques in combination with contrast agents is challenging, mostly because the local concentration reached in the tumor is often below the sensitivity detection range [4]. In the last 20 years, multifunctional contrast agents were custom-built to achieve preferential accumulation in the diseased tissue [5]. In this study, passive and active tumor targeting strategies were considered to enhance the local concentration of polymeric nanocapsules, containing a liquid core of perfluorooctyl bromide (PFOB). The passive tumor targeting approach is based on the enhanced permeation and retention (EPR) effect. The related nanocapsules require to be small enough (< 400nm) and have extended plasmatic half life. The active tumor targeting approach is based on the specific receptor-ligand recognition.For passive tumor targeting, the nanocapsules were prepared with PLGA-b-PEG by an emulsion-evaporation process. The core shell morphology was confirmed by cryoTEM and 19F NMR. The surface of nanocapsules was densely covered by PEG chains with brush conformation, as assessed by XPS and Small Angle Neutrons Scattering. The related stealthiness of nanocapsules was evidenced in vitro by complement activation measurements and in vivo by a kinetic study of the mice liver uptake, performed after intravenous administration of nanocapsules. The tumor imaging, by 19F MRI, revealed that only 1% of the injected dose was accumulated in the diseased tissue whereas, by ultrasonography no contrast enhancement was observed. Thus, another targeting approach was required to increase nanocapsule distribution within the tumor. Nanocapsules were functionalized with an Arginine-Glycine-Aspartic acid (RGD) peptide to target the αvβ3 integrins, which are overexpressed proteins on neovessels. Two strategies, called bottom-up and top-down, were designed to achieve satisfying peptide decoration on nanocapsule surface. The coupling efficiency was measured by 1H NMR. The nanocapsule morphology was studied by CryoTEM.

Le glioblastome (GB), tumeur primitive du cerveau, la plus agressive, et la plus fréquente chez l’adulte, présente une prolifération vasculaire importante. Des agents thérapeutiques innovants ciblant à la fois l'angiogenèse et les cellules tumorales sont recherchés, ainsi que des systèmes pour augmenter leur délivrance dans la tumeur cérébrale. Un de ces agents est le sorafénib (SFN), un inhibiteur de tyrosine kinase. Sa mauvaise solubilité aqueuse et ses effets secondaires indésirables limitent son utilisation. Le premier objectif de cette thèse était d'encapsuler cet agent dans des nanocapsules lipidiques (NCL) pour contrer ces inconvénients. Nous avons développé des NCL avec une haute efficacité d'encapsulation du SFN qui inhibaient in vitro l'angiogenèse et la viabilité de la lignée de GB humain U87MG. La délivrance intratumorale de SFN-NCL chez des souris porteuses d’une tumeur intracérébrale U87MG induit une normalisation vasculaire tumorale précoce qui pourrait améliorer l'efficacité de la chimiothérapie et de la radiothérapie. Le second objectif était de définir si la délivrance intranasale de NCL pouvait constituer une voie non-invasive alternative. Nous avons étudié via le transfert d'énergie par résonance de type Förster, le devenir des NCL chargées d’un fluorochrome à travers des monocouches de cellules Calu-3, un modèle de l'épithélium nasal. L'utilisation de NCL augmente le passage du fluorochrome à travers les cellules Calu-3, mais les particules sont rapidement dégradées après leur capture. Ces données mettent en évidence que les NCL sont appropriées pour la délivrance locale du SFN mais doivent être modifiées pour une délivrance intranasale. / Glioblastoma (GB), the most aggressive, and the most frequent primary tumor of the brain in adults, present a prominent vascular proliferation. Innovative therapeutic agents targeting both angiogenesis and tumor cells are urgently required, along with competent systems for their delivery to the brain tumor. One such agent is sorafenib (SFN), a tyrosine kinase inhibitor. However, poor aqueoussolubility and undesirable side effects limit its clinical application. The first objective of this thesis was to encapsulate this drug inside lipid nanocapsules(LNCs) to overcome these drawbacks. We developed LNCs with a high SFN encapsulation efficiency (>90%) that inhibited in vitro angiogenesis and the viability of the human U87MG GB cell line. Intratumoral delivery of SFN-LNCs in mice bearing intracerebral U87MG tumors induced early tumor vascular normalization which could be used to improve the efficacy of chemotherapy and radiotherapy in the treatment of GB. The second objective was to define whether intranasal delivery of LNCs could be an alternative non-invasive route. In this regard, we investigated through Förster resonance energy transfer, the fate of dye-loaded LNCs across Calu-3 cell monolayers, a model of the nasal mucosa. We showed that employment of LNCs dramatically increased the delivery of the dye acrossCalu-3 cell monolayer but they were rapidly degraded after their uptake. These data highlight that LNCs are suitable nanocarriers for the local delivery of SFN but must be redesigned for enhancing their nose-to-brain delivery.

En se focalisant sur l'administration de médicaments dans et vers le système nerveux central et notamment pour le traitement du glioblastome, ce travail de thèse a eu pour but la mise en place d'outils expérimentaux et l'évaluation du comportement de nanovecteurs au cours du franchissement de barrières biologiques. Trois types de nanovecteurs de taille variant entre 20 et 100nm ont été appréhendés : des nanoparticules de polysaccharide, de PLGA et des nanocapsules lipidiques (LNC). Le comportement de ces objets vis-à-vis des éléments du sang a permis de définir que le revêtement par la transferrine de nanoparticules de PLGA et l'insertion de phospholipides ou de BSA dans des nanoparticules polysaccharidiques diminuait leur reconnaissance par le système réticulo-endothélial et améliorait leur temps de résidence plasmatique. Ces modifications de surface sont également associées à une possibilité d'internalisation dans les cellules cibles F98 de gliomes influencée essentiellement par la nature lipidique ou polymérique du vecteur. L'évaluation précise du comportement cellulaire et subcellulaire des LNC dans les cellules F98 a permis de démontrer que si la nature du vecteur est impliquée notamment en ce qui concerne le recrutement de voies d'endocytoses cholestéroldépendantes, la taille, corrélée au taux de surfactant véhiculé, est également impliquée. Les LNC de 20nm sont ainsi les plus aptes à permettre l'échappement lysosomal des principes actifs véhiculés et démontrent des activités pharmacologiques renforcées notamment pour ce qui concerne la mort cellulaire induite par le paclitaxel. Ces résultats établissent donc un lien original entre le comportement subcellulaire des vecteurs et la biodisponibilité des agents anticancéreux. De nouvelles potentialités de franchissement de barrières ligand- ou taille-dépendants ont été soulignées. Ces observations renforcent donc l'intérêt d'études comparatives permettant de rationaliser l'utilisation d'un vecteur donné pour un médicament et une cible donnés. Elles démontrent également tout l'intérêt d'établir des justifications entre le comportement biologique et la pertinence thérapeutique des nanovecteurs.

Le cancer est un problème de santé publique dans le monde entier et d'importantes ressources en soins de santé sont dépensées pour le diagnostic. Plus précoce sera le dépistage des tumeurs, meilleures sont les chances de rémission sans rechute. Les techniques d'imagerie permettent de suivre l'évolution du traitement et de réorienter la stratégie en cas d'échec. En combinaison avec des agents de contraste ciblés, les modalités d'imagerie permettent même de sonder les structures à l'échelle moléculaires ce qui pourrait laisser envisager un traitement personnalisé du cancer [1, 2]. L'imagerie par résonance magnétique (IRM) et l'échographie sont deux techniques complémentaires et non invasives qui permettent la détection de plusieurs cancers (sein, colon, cerveau ...). L'échographie est rentable, portable et fournit, en temps reel, des informations anatomiques. L'IRM profite d'une pénétration profonde dans les tissus mous, d'un contraste élevé et d'une meilleure sensibilité que l'échographie [3]. Néanmoins, l'utilisation de ces techniques en combinaison avec des agents de contraste est difficile, surtout parce que la concentration locale atteint dans la tumeur est souvent inférieure à la plage de sensibilité de détection [4]. Au cours des 20 dernières années, les agents de contraste multifonctionnels ont été construits sur mesure pour atteindre une accumulation préférentielle dans les tissus malades [5]. Dans cette étude, des stratégies de ciblage passif et actif de la tumeur ont été envisagées pour renforcer la concentration locale de nanocapsules polymère, contenant un noyau liquide de bromure de perfluorooctyle (PFOB). L'approche de ciblage passif est basée sur l'effet de pénétration et la rétention accrue (EPR). Les nanocapsules doivent avoir un diamètre inférieur à 400nm une demi-vie plasmatique prolongée. L'approche de ciblage actif est basée sur la reconnaissance spécifique d'un ligand pour une cible biologique surexprimée par la tumeur ou la néovascularisation. Pour le ciblage passif, les nanocapsules ont été préparées avec PLGA-b-PEG par un procédé d'émulsion-évaporation. La morphologie cœur-couronne a été confirmée par RMN du Fluor et cryo microscopie électronique. La surface des nanocapsules est densément couverte par des chaînes de PEG qui adoptent une conformation en brosse, telle qu'évaluée par XPS et diffusion des neutrons aux petits angles. La furtivité des nanocapsules a été démontrée in vitro par des mesures d'activation du complément et in vivo par une étude cinétique de la capture hépatique, réalisée après l'administration intraveineuse de nanocapsules chez la souris nude. L'imagerie des tumeurs, par IRM du Fluor, a révélé que seulement 1% de la dose injectée a été accumulée dans le tissu malade. Par échographie aucun réhaussement du contraste n'a été observé. Ainsi, une autre approche de ciblage a été nécessaire afin d'augmenter l'accumulation des nanocapsules au sein de la tumeur. Les nanocapsules ont été fonctionnalisées avec un peptide RGD (Arginine-Glycine-Acide aspartique afin de cibler les intégrines avß3, qui sont des protéines transmembranaires surexprimées par les néovaisseaux. Deux stratégies, appelées bottom-up et top-down, ont été élaborées pour mener à une décoration satisfaisante du peptide à la surface des nanocapsules. L'efficacité du couplage a été mesurée par RMN du proton. La morphologie des nanocapsules a été étudiée par CryoTEM.

This work evaluated the influence of the composition on the physico-chemical characteristics, stability and photostability of nanostructures containing ubiquinone. Nanocapsules (NC) and nanoemulsions (NE) were prepared by interfacial deposition of preformed polymers and spontaneous emulsification, respectively. The formulations were characterized and compared in relation to the influence of the oil (argan or linseed oil) and its amount in the formulation (3% or 1.5%), the type of polymer (poli(ε-caprolactone), PCL or Eudragit® RL100, EUD), drug presence, besides the comparison between both nanostructures. To assay ubiquinone, the analytical method was validated and was considered linear, specific, precise and accurate. The formulations had adequate physico-chemical characteristics, with drug contents close to the theoretical value (1mg/mL), encapsulation efficiencies close to 100% and polydispersity index lower than 0.2 for formulations with 1.5% of oil. The reduction of oil concentration caused a decrease in the average diameter and polidispersity index of PCL NC of argan oil and EUD NC and NE of linseed oil. Furthermore, the addition of ubiquinone was able to modify the zeta potential of these formulations. Regarding the type of structure (NE or NC), the pH was influenced. EUD NC presented values lower than NE and PCL NC, regardless of the oil used. In addition, EUD NC with linseed oil had a higher zeta potential in module in relation to the NE and PCL NC. Concerning the type of oil used, particle diameter and polydispersity index were lower for EUD NC of linseed oil in relation to EUD NC of argan oil. Moreover, all formulations were able to photoprotect ubiquinone in comparison with free drug, occurring influence of the oil and the polymer. Regarding the stability, the formulations showed a reduced level of drug over 60 days, while the type of oil influenced this parameter. Nanostructures of argan oil showed higher levels. NC presented higher drug contents in relation to NE. The increase in particle size was only significant for NC of argan oil and PCL at 15 days, which showed a greater diameter than those of PCL NC of linseed oil and EUD NC of argan oil. An increase in zeta potential for NE was detected at 60 days, while EUD NC of argan oil showed a decrease in this parameter. The zeta potential was higher in module for NC of EUD in relation to the respective NE. / Este trabalho avaliou a influência da composição sobre as características físico-químicas, estabilidade e fotoestabilidade de nanoestruturas contendo ubiquinona. As nanocápsulas (NC) e nanoemulsões (NE) foram preparadas por deposição interfacial de polímero pré-formado e emulsificação espontânea, respectivamente. As formulações foram caracterizadas e comparadas quanto à influência do tipo de óleo (óleo de argan ou de linhaça) e de sua quantidade (3% ou 1,5%), quanto ao polímero poli(-caprolactona), PCL ou Eudragit® RL 100, EUD, quanto à presença do fármaco, além da comparação entre ambas as nanoestruturas. Para a quantificação da ubiquinona, o método foi validado, apresentando-se linear, específico, preciso e exato. As formulações apresentaram características físico-químicas adequadas, com teores próximos ao valor teórico de 1mg/mL, além de eficiências de encapsulamento próximas de 100% e de índices de polidispersão inferiores a 0,2 para as formulações com 1,5% de óleo. A redução na concentração de óleo causou diminuição do diâmetro médio e no índice de polidispersão das NC de óleo de argan e PCL e das NE e NC de EUD e óleo de linhaça. Além disso, a adição de ubiquinona foi capaz de alterar o potencial zeta destas formulações. Quanto ao tipo de estrutura, o pH sofreu influência, onde a NC de EUD apresentou valores inferiores à NE e NC de PCL, independente do óleo utilizado. Além disso, a NC de EUD e óleo de linhaça apresentou potencial zeta superior em módulo em relação à NE e NC de PCL. Quanto ao tipo de óleo empregado, o diâmetro de partícula e o índice de polidispersão foram menores para as NC de EUD e óleo de linhaça em relação às NC de EUD e óleo de argan. Além disso, todas as formulações foram capazes de fotoproteger a ubiquinona em comparação ao fármaco livre, havendo influência do óleo e do polímero. Quanto à estabilidade, as formulações apresentaram redução no teor de fármaco ao longo de 60 dias, sendo que as nanoestruturas de óleo de argan apresentaram teores maiores. As NC apresentaram teores maiores em relação às NE. O aumento no tamanho de partícula só foi significativo para a NC de óleo de argan e PCL aos 15 dias, onde apresentou diâmetro maior em relação às NC de PCL e óleo de linhaça e de EUD e óleo de argan. Um aumento no potencial zeta foi detectado para as NE aos 60 dias, enquanto que a NC de EUD e óleo de argan apresentou decréscimo neste parâmetro. O potencial zeta ainda apresentou-se maior em módulo para as NC de EUD em relação às respectivas NE.

The past few years have witnessed significant work being directed towards drug delivery systems with layer-by layer (LbL) technique prominently featured as one of the most sought after approach. However, majority of the studies were focused on the fabrication of microcapsules which produced numerous drawbacks resulting in reduced applicability. This has spurred research into nanocapsules which has proved to overcome most of the drawbacks that plagued microcapsules by being able to evade the reticulo-endothelial system, exhibit enhanced permeability and retention in tumours etc. The capsules fabricated by the LbL technique requires a suitable combination of cationic and anionic polyelectrolytes which ensures that it is able to effectively protect the cargo it encapsulates as well as enhance its bio-applications. With numerous advantages such as biocompatibility and biodegradability to name a few, chitosan has proved to be an ideal cationic polyelectrolyte. Thus, this thesis focuses on the various therapeutic applications of LbL fabricated chitosan based nanocapsules. The first work focuses on the targeted delivery of the somatostatin analogue, Octreotide conjugated nanocapsules to over expressed somatostatin receptors. These LbL fabricated nanocapsules composed of chitosan and dextran sulfate (CD) encapsulate the anti cancer drug, doxorubicin and are found to attain site specificity as well as enhanced anti-proliferative activity. The results indicated that the nanocapsules were biocompatible and when conjugated with octreotide was found to have an enhanced internalization into SSTR expressing cells, thereby making it a viable strategy for the treatment of tumors that has an over expression of somatostatin receptors such as pancreatic carcinoma, breast carcinoma etc. The objective of the second work was to develop an efficient drug delivery system such as CD nanocapsules for encapsulation of Ciprofloxacin in order to combat infection by Salmonella, an intracellular and intra-phagosomal pathogen. In vitro and in vivo experiments showed that this delivery system can be used effectively to clear Salmonella infection. The increased retention of ciprofloxacin in tissues delivered by CD nanocapsules as compared to the conventional delivery proved that the same therapeutic effect was obtained with reduced dosage and frequency of Ciprofloxacin administration. The third work deals with the probiotic, Saccharomyces boulardii which is found to be effective against several gastrointestinal diseases but had limited clinical application due to its sensitivity to acidic environment. However, encapsulation of S. boulardii with chitosan and dextran sulfate ensured enhanced viability and selective permeability on exposure to acidic and alkaline conditions experienced during gastro intestinal transit. The final work involves the fabrication of novel pH responsive nanocapsules composed of chitosan-heparin which facilitate the intracellular delivery of a model anti-cancer drug, doxorubicin.

Chapter–I Introduction Shock waves appear in nature whenever the different elements in a fluid approach one another with a velocity larger than the local speed of sound. Shock waves are essentially non-linear waves that propagate at supersonic speeds. Such disturbances occur in steady transonic or supersonic flows, during explosions, earthquakes, tsunamis, lightening strokes and contact surfaces in laboratory devices. Any sudden release of energy (within few μs) will invariably result in the formation of shock wave since it is one of the efficient mechanisms of energy dissipation observed in nature. The dissipation of mechanical, nuclear, chemical, and electrical energy in a limited space will result in the formation of a shock wave. However, it is possible to generate micro-shock waves in laboratory using different methods including controlled explosions. One of the unique features of shock wave propagation in any medium (solid, liquid or gases) is their ability to instantaneously enhance pressure and temperature of the medium. Shock waves have been successfully used for disintegrating kidney stones, non-invasive angiogenic therapy and osteoporosis treatment. In this study, we have generated a novel method to produce micro-shock waves using micro-explosions. Different biological applications were developed by further exploring the physical properties of shock waves. Chapter – II Bacterial transformation using micro-shock waves In bacteria, uptake of DNA occurs naturally by transformation, transduction and conjugation. The most widely used methods for artificial bacterial transformation are procedures based on CaCl2 treatment and electroporation. In this chapter, controlled micro-shock waves were harnessed to develop a unique bacterial transformation method. The conditions have been optimized for the maximum transformation efficiency in E. coli. The highest transformation efficiency achieved (1 × 10-5 transformants per cell) was at least 10 times greater than the previously reported ultrasound mediated transformation (1 × 10-6 transformants per cell). This method has also been successfully employed for the efficient and reproducible transformation of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Salmonella Typhimurium. This novel method of transformation has been shown to be as efficient as electroporation with the added advantage of better recovery of cells, economical (40 times cheaper than commercial electroporator) and growth-phase independent transformation. Chapter – III Needle-less vaccine delivery using micro-shock waves Utilizing the instantaneous mechanical impulse generated behind the micro-shock wave during controlled explosion, a novel non-intrusive needleless vaccine delivery system has been developed. It is well established, that antigens in the epidermis are efficiently presented by resident Langerhans cells, eliciting the requisite immune response, making them a good target for vaccine delivery. Unfortunately, needle free devices for epidermal delivery have inherent problems from the perspective of patient safety and comfort. The penetration depth of less than 100 µm in the skin can elicit higher immune response without any pain. Here the efficient utilization of the device for micro-shock wave mediated vaccination was demonstrated. Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium vaccine strain pmrG-HM-D (DV-STM-07) was delivered using our device in the murine salmonellosis model and the effectiveness of the delivery system for vaccination was compared with other routes of vaccination. The device mediated vaccination elicits better protection as well as IgG response even in lower vaccine dose (ten-fold lesser), compare to other routes of vaccination. Chapter – IV In vitro and in vivo biofilm disruption using shock waves Many of the bacteria secrete highly hydrated framework of extracellular polymer matrix on encountering suitable substrates and get embedded within the matrix to form biofilm. Bacterial colonization in biofilm form is observed in most of the medical devices as well as during infections. Since these bacteria are protected by the polymeric matrix, antibiotic concentration of more than 1000 times of the MIC is required to treat these infections. Active research is being undertaken to develop antibacterial coated medical implants to prevent the formation of biofilm. Here, a novel strategy to treat biofilm colonization in medical devices and infectious conditions by employing shock waves was developed. Micro-shock waves assisted disintegration of Salmonella, Pseudomonas and Staphylococcus biofilm in urinary catheters was demonstrated. The biofilm treated with micro-shock waves became susceptible to antibiotics, whereas the untreated was resistant. Apart from medical devices, the study was extended to Pseudomonas lung infection model in mice. Mice exposed to shock waves responded well to ciprofloxacin while ciprofloxacin alone could not rescue the mice from infection. All the mice survived when antibiotic treatment was provided along with shock wave exposure. These results clearly demonstrate that shock waves can be used along with antibiotic treatment to tackle chronic conditions resulting from biofilm formation in medical devices as well as biological infections. Chapter – V Shock wave responsive drug delivery system for therapeutic application Different systems have been used for more efficient drug delivery as well as targeted delivery. Responsive drug delivery systems have also been developed where different stimuli (pH, temperature, ultrasound etc.) are used to trigger the drug release. In this study, a novel drug delivery system which responds to shock waves was developed. Spermidine and dextran sulfate was used to develop the microcapsules using layer by layer method. Ciprofloxacin was loaded in the capsules and we have used shock waves to release the drug. Only 10% of the drug was released in 24 h at pH 7.4, whereas 20% of the drug was released immediately after the particles were exposed to shock waves. Almost 90% of the drug release was observed when the particles were exposed to shock waves 5 times. Since shock waves can be used to induce angiogenesis and wound healing, Staphylococcus aureus skin infection model was used to show the effectiveness of the delivery system. The results show that shock wave can be used to trigger the drug release and can be used to treat the wound effectively. A brief summary of the studies that does not directly deal with the biological applications of shock waves are included in the Appendix. Different drug delivery systems were developed to check their effect in Salmonella infection as well as cancer. It was shown for the first time that silver nanoparticles interact with serum proteins and hence the antimicrobial properties are affected. In a nutshell, the potential of shock waves was harnessed to develop novel experimental tools/technologies that transcend the traditional boundaries of basic science and engineering.