L’histoire de la Première République en Autriche révèle l’attachement de la plupart desAutrichiens à la Grande Allemagne jusqu’à l’avènement de l’Anschluss. En outre, il a souventété dit que les Autrichiens étaient des Allemands. Dans l’espace francophone, il semble peuclair qu’une volonté, d’abord politique, de détachement de l’Allemagne s’est dessinée àl’issue de la Seconde Guerre mondiale, volonté qui s’est transformée en un processus de prisede conscience nationale indépendante.L’émergence et le développement d’une conscience nationale autrichienne aboutissent à unenation autrichienne libre et indépendante dans le contexte de la Deuxième République. Denombreux résultats de sondages, suivant une logique chronologique, retracent l’évolution decette conscience nationale, ce qui vient en complément d’analyses de l’histoire politique etsociale de l’Autriche d’après-guerre jusqu’à nos jours. Ce processus est observé aux niveauxdes acteurs politique, de la population et des régions. En analysant ce phénomène de prise deconscience et son développement à divers niveaux, on finit par conclure que certainespersonnalités emblématiques, à l’instar du chancelier Kreisky, ont largement contribué à laconsolidation de ce sentiment national au travers d’une politique intérieure et extérieurequ’elles ont su mettre en place. De plus, on constate que des facteurs non négligeables telsque la Sozialpartnerschaft (partenariat social) et la Proporzdemokratie (démocratie à laproportionnelle) ont également contribué à l’affermissement de ce sentiment. Par ailleurs, l’onobserve aussi que ce processus d’identification nationale fut soumis à rude épreuve par deséléments nationaux-allemands, sous la bannière d’autres figures politiques comme JörgHaider, aussi charismatique que controversé. Malgré tout, l’adhésion à la nation autrichienne,précédée d’une prise de conscience nationale autrichienne, fut totale. Le décalage estégalement perceptible entre les trois niveaux précités que sont la politique, la population et lesrégions. Par exemple, l’adhésion à la nation autrichienne a été de durée variable selon lesrégions. Le suivi de l’évolution de ce sentiment national au profit de l’émergence d’une nationautrichienne constitue l’élément capital de ce travail. / The history of the Austrian First Republic brings to light the attachment of most Austrians tothe Greater Germany until the annexation in 1938. Moreover, it has often been said that theAustrians were Germans. In the French speaking world, it doesn’t seem so clear that a mainlypolitical will to separate from Germany showed off after the Second World War, and thenbecame an independent national awakening process.The emergence and development of an Austrian national consciousness lead to a free andindependent Austrian nation in the context of the Second Republic. Numerous poll resultsbased on a chronological analysis describe the evolution of this national consciousness. Theycomplement political and social history analysis from post war Austria to nowadays. Thisprocess can be observed in the fields of political players, of the population as well as on aregional scale. Studying the awakening of a national consciousness and its development onvarious levels leads to the conclusion that certain emblematic figures, such as ChancellorKreisky, have played a major role in the consolidation of this national feeling, through thenational and international politics they lead. Moreover, crucial factors such as theSozialpartnerschaft (social partnership) and the Proporzdemokratie (proportional democracy)have also contributed to strengthening this national feeling. Furthermore, it is also to benoticed that this national identification process was put to a severe test by pan-GermanicAutrians, under the banner of other political figures, such as Jörg Haider, who wascharismatic and controversial at the same time. Nonetheless, the adherence to the Austriannation, which followed the awakening of a national Austrian consciousness, was total. Thediscrepancies are also noticeable between the three fields mentioned above, which are thepolitics, population and regions. For instance, the adherence to the Austrian nation took moreor less time among regions.

Impôt général de consommation qui frappe la dépense ou la consommation, ainsi que l’introduction en Guinée de biens ou de services, la TVA est un impôt propice à une maximisation des recettes fiscales dont l’État a besoin pour financer son développement. Ses nombreux avantages et qualités, notamment sa productivité financière, sa neutralité économique, ses possibilités à moderniser un système fiscal, etc., qui ont motivé la Guinée à opter pour ce mode de taxation, en 1996, sont remis en cause. Le système de la TVA en Guinée gagnerait à être réexaminé. Des mécanismes plus rigoureux permettraient de mieux intégrer la TVA au système fiscal et de promouvoir un environnement économique et budgétaire favorable en République de Guinée : l’instauration du taux de la TVA réduit jusqu’à zéro à la place des exonérations, l’élimination de la limitation de droit à déduction, ou encore la définition de normes de reversement de la taxe pour certaines catégories de contribuables et la gestion efficace de la retenue à la source sont des démarches, parmi tant d’autres, à mettre en œuvre pour soulager les entreprises et améliorer le système de la TVA en Guinée / General tax of consumption that applies on expense or consumption, as well as import of goods and services to Guinea, the VAT is a tax tool to maximize tax revenues needed by the State to finance its development. Its many advantages and quality, such as its financial productivity, economic neutrality, possibility of financial system modernization, etc. that motivated Guinea to opt for that tax mode, in 1996, are now contested. The Guinean VAT system will gain to be revisited. Rigorous mechanisms will allow the integration of the VAT in the tax system, and promote a better economic and budget environment in Republic of Guinea: The instauration of a VAT with a lowered rate to near zero, to replace exonerations; the suppression of limitation for tax deductions; or the definition of norms of tax return for some categories of taxpayers, and the efficient management tax collected at the source, are processes amount many others, to implement in order to give some relieve to businesses and improve the VAT system in Guinea

Climate change science is complex and controversial in nature, yet seen by educators and policy makers as an important topic to be taught within secondary science education. This is becoming increasingly evident with the inclusion of climate change into the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) for Earth and Space Sciences as well as Life Science courses (NGSS, 2013). An overwhelming amount of information is available to students; however, it is often misrepresented, politically inflated and falsified, and littered with misconceptions (Dawson & Carson, 2014; Gayford, 2002). It is critical to engage students in discourse that challenges them ethically in order for students to become more informed citizens, be able to develop skills necessary to take part in democratic discourse, and cultivate resolution (Gore, 1999; Lockwood & Harris, 1985; Reitano, Kivunja, & Porter, 2008) Teacher’s personal beliefs about the instruction of climate change within science education are unclear (Gayford, 2002). The presence of controversy can influence teachers’ instructional decisions and cause confusion about the science of climate change and many teachers may fear objection from community members (Maibach, Roser-Renouf, & Leiserowitz, 2008). Therefore, we must consider the role of teachers’ beliefs when examining their classroom instruction (Kagan, 1992; Nespor, 1987). This research study examines the complex nature of science teacher beliefs about climate change, their instructional practice in the marine science classroom, and the impacts on student outcomes. The study takes place within four marine science classrooms over the course of one semester. The teachers taking part in the study and their respective students are representative participants of the greater school district. The purpose of this study was to better understand teachers’ understandings and beliefs about climate change, and how individuals feel their beliefs impact instructional practices. Teacher and student data were collected from classroom observations, surveys, interviews, and a comprehensive midterm exam of the content. The qualitative and quantitative data collected were analyzed and compared through a fully mixed methods approach by which the findings of both types of data were compared and contrasted to triangulate findings. Findings from the study suggest teachers have strong beliefs about the causes and implications of climate change, they have high levels of concern for the impacts it will have on future generations, and value the topic as a necessary component of science education. However, this study revealed the controversial nature of the topic, current political climate, and potential resistance from stakeholders inhibited teachers from espousing these beliefs within their instruction of the curriculum. Results from the study found teachers’ personal beliefs had essentially no impacts on their classroom instruction or resulting student outcomes

The aim of the thesis is to examine the aspects and benefits of neutrality for both Sweden and the international community, to look for the causes of its current changing and problematic situation and to identify the opportunities it still offers. The text therefore answers these research questions: What was the contribution of neutrality to Sweden's security policy in the 20th century? What was the contribution of Swedish neutrality to the international community in the 20th century? What has changed and how that, since the end of the Cold War, Swedish neutrality has been transformed? What opportunities does Swedish security policy offer today? In accordance with the aims and questions, the topic is elaborated as an historical interpretive (and explanatory) and literature-assessing dissertation. Its first part (chapter 1) is a conceptual analysis and a state of the art review of the wider context of the topic. The second part (chapters 2 and 3) is a qualitative single case study. As to theory, the thesis draws from liberalism, constructivism and the Copenhagen School of Security Studies. The changes in (international) security and Swedish security policy and neutrality are interpreted in the context of globalisation processes. The text identifies two notions of security - military and open/liberal, which it links to two dimensions of political neutrality - realistic and idealistic and, by applying them, answers the questions asked. It concludes that the Swedish security policy or neutrality has been and is primarily about finding effective and legitimate alternatives and ways to implement them in a transforming, complex and uncertain world.

Mobile operators face a scenario characterised by new challenges such as growing data consumption, a slowdown in subscriber growth and reduced revenues due to the success of OTT providers. To remain competitive, mobile operators must offer affordable services and think on strategies to retain current customers. Quality of Experience (QoE) is a well-established methodology for measuring and understanding the overall level of customer satisfaction with a service and has been presented as a way to improve telecommunication services. Even though QoE can be used to solve problems such as customer loyalty and optimisation of network resources in mobile networks, there is a great lack of knowledge on how mobile operators can take advantage of QoE and its potential benefits. This thesis explores the incorporation of QoE in mobile networks to improve their service offering from a technical, regulatory and business perspective.The technical level focuses on the definition of the mechanism to integrate QoE in the operation of mobile networks. The second part of this study has been focused on the regulatory framework on Net Neutrality. Finally,the third part of this thesis focuses on the identification of potential business scenarios and models based on the incorporation of QoE in mobile networks. An important conclusion is that due to the nature of the challenges faced by the mobile industry, a QoE analysis cannot be limited to a technical discussion. A technical solution can be the first step to the first step to overcoming industry challenges. However, it is important that a technical decision comes along with an informed analysis of the regulatory conditions and the business implications of the proposed solution. On the other hand, mobile operators require new methods that integrate technical, market and business considerations to improve their service offer. A method analysed in this dissertation is a Customer Experience Management (CEM) platform. Given the technical, regulatory and business factors covered in this thesis, a CEM platform can be used by mobile operators to make a better use of QoE in their business operation. / Mobiloperatörer möter ett scenario som kännetecknas av en ökande trend inom dataförbrukning, tecken på en avmattning i abonnenttillväxten, en en minskning av de traditionella intäkter på grund av framgången med OTT leverantörer. Dessutom, mobila användare har gott om alternativ för att ändra tjänsteleverantören. I det här fallet måste mobiloperatörer förbli konkurrenskraftiga baseras både på pris och deras abonnenter tillfredsställelse. Kvalitet Erfarenhets (QoE) införlivande i mobilnät kan vara ett av alternativen för att möta vissa mobilbranschen utmaningar som omfattar tekniska, kommersiella och marknadsnivå. QoE möjliggör en bredare och mer övergripande förståelse av användarnas erfarenheter med utförandet av applikationer, tjänster och nätverk, samtidigt som kompletterar traditionella techno-centric begrepp som Quality of Service(QoS). Händelse om användningen av QoE data har föreslagits som ettsätt att lösa problem som optimering av nätverksresurser och kundomsättning upplevs av mobiloperatörer, finns det fortfarande en lucka på hur man utnyttjar QoE och dess potentiella fördelar i ramen för mobilnät. Således är den övergripande inriktningen av denna avhandling på att analysera hur mobiloperatörer kan integrera QoE feedback för att förbättra sin serviceerbjudande.Men på grund av arten av de utmaningar som den mobila industrin står inför, denna analys kan inte begränsas till en teknisk nivå diskussion. även hitta en teknisk lösning skulle kunna vara det första steget för att övervinna utmaningarna på marknaden, är det viktigt att ett tekniskt beslut kommer tillsammans med en välgrundad analys av de regulatoriska förutsättningarna för att genomförandet och affärs konsekvenserna av den föreslagna lösningen.Så kan en skådespelare intresserad av genomförandet av det föreslagna i dennaavhandling mekanism har fler verktyg för ett välgrundat beslut fattandet. På teknisk nivå, fokuserar denna uppsats på identifiering av teknisk mekanismför att införliva QoE i mobilnätet. Sedan vår analys kretsar kring identifieringen av regelverket om nätneutralitet och dess potentiella inverkan på genomförandet av den föreslagna mekanismen för införliva QoE i mobilnät. Slutligen, och letar efter en helhetssyn på QoE frågan, erbjuder vi en analys av konsekvenserna av att införliva QoE för hela mobilnät ekosystemet och intressenterna längs hela värdenätverket. / <p>QC 20161229</p> / Quality of Experience: A Techno-economic Analysis / Quality of Experience and Net Neutrality

Esta pesquisa analisa a atuação dos grupos de interesses do setor privado na política de internet no Brasil, concentrando-se na definição do princípio da neutralidade de rede no âmbito do Marco Civil da Internet. A influência dos grupos de interesses e o seu papel como fornecedores de informação aos tomadores de decisão foi constatada a partir do levantamento de documentos oficiais, contribuições a consultas e audiências públicas e artigos jornalísticos. Em seguida, os dados levantados foram analisados sob três abordagens teóricas: os tipos de políticas públicas de Lowi, a ciência política com foco na política (policy-focused) de Hacker e Pierson, e o equilíbrio interrompido de True e Baumgatner. A pesquisa identificou que os grupos de interesses traçaram as suas estratégias em função das características da política, formaram coalizões baseadas em interesses compartilhados e construíram três imagens principais para o assunto da neutralidade de rede a fim de destacar o seu posicionamento e captar a atenção de formuladores de política, tomadores de decisão e da opinião pública, são elas: a liberdade de expressão, competição e a legalidade. Os três principais grupos de interesses do setor privado que disputaram a definição do Marco Civil da Internet foram o setor de conteúdo, o setor de internet e o setor de telecomunicações. Em conclusão, a pesquisa identificou a redução gradativa do escopo da política para acomodar interesses conflitantes em um mínimo final. / This research aims to analyze private sector interest groups influence on internet policy in Brazil, particularly on the definition of network neutrality in the Internet Framework Law (Marco Civil da Internet). Interest groups influence and their role as information subsidizers was examined through the study of official documents, contributions to public consultations and public hearings and media articles. Following data collection, a descriptive analysis of the results was undertaken based on three main theoretical approaches: Theodore Lowi\'s public policy typology, Hacker and Pierson\'s policy-focused social science and True and Baumgartner\'s punctuated equilibrium. The research identified that interests groups traced their strategies according to the policy in dispute, built coalitions based on shared (but mutable) interests, and developed three main images to emphasize their position and engage policymakers, decisionmakers and public opinion: network neutrality as freedom of speech, as competition and as legality. Three main private sector interest groups were identified during the dispute: the content industry, the internet industry and the telecommunications industry. In conclusion, this research observed that group dispute gradually reduced policy scope to accommodate conflicting interests in one final policy.

This dissertation will examine the question of whether internet neutrality is protected within the current South African legal framework and secondly whether or not internet neutrality should be protected when considering the policy advantages and disadvantages that it presents. Due to the fact that the arguments in support as well as against internet neutrality fundamentally originate from broadly two different and distinct philosophical approaches, this paper starts off with a historical analysis of the development of the internet. This is followed by a discussion of the nature of rights vis-à-vis the question of whether access to the internet can be considered as a fundamental human and/or legal right. After discussing both the history of the internet and the nature of rights in the context of the subject matter of this paper, the paper turns to the policy of internet neutrality itself. The paper compares the differing approaches followed by firstly the USA and secondly the EU with regards to internet neutrality, specifically in relation to consumer rights, competition law and corporate transparency. At the end of the paper, current South African consumer rights protection and competition law are analysed in order to determine whether or not the existing regulations afford adequate protect against potential abuses of data discrimination by ISPs. The debate regarding internet neutrality potentially affects each and every jurisdiction throughout the world where internet users accesses the internet. Not only is internet neutrality therefore a policy consideration all over the world but the policy consideration is one that should be answered through multidisciplinary research and inputs. It is therefore important to note that this research paper is written from a legal perspective and is merely a contribution to a policy question (namely that of internet neutrality) that has to be considered through the lenses of various academic fields. / Dissertation (LLM)--University of Pretoria, 2020. / Mercantile Law / LLM / Unrestricted

Sweden is ranked as one of the most equal countries in the world based on quantitative measures. Furthermore, many organizations consider themselves gender-neutral, meaning that they make no difference between genders. So, how do minority employees experience the gender neutrality of their workplaces? This study explores the experiences of minority employees regarding the gender neutrality of their workplace. Primary data was collected through ten semi-structured interviews with female- and male minorities. By comparing the experiences of those two minority groups, it was found that both are doing gender at their workplaces; hence the gender neutrality of the studied organizations can be questioned. Furthermore, the study highlights that when males are in the minority, they do not face the same problems as females in the minority. The interviewed females experienced problems such as direct discrimination, being silenced, being under pressure, and having to take a step back; thus, they did not have the same rights and opportunities as males. On the other hand, the interviewed males experienced equal treatment at their workplaces. Hence, problems were not based on one being a minority, instead, it was based on still existing gender differences. Therefore, for organizations not to lose valuable resources, they must address the existing problems.

In October 2019, massive protests formed all over Lebanon, calling for an end tosectarianism. Sectarianism is a process which operates multidimensionally, politicizingreligious beliefs to create collective identities. I argue for an understanding of sectarianidentity much like an ethnic or national identity, drawing on the works of Fredrik Barth andBenedict Anderson. This system has created a sectarian incentive for the Lebanese, to act andmobilize as sectarian subjects.The Lebanese Red Cross is a member of the International Red Cross and Red CrescentMovement. The Neutrality Principle is utilized as a means to gain confidence, and therebyaccess, across all sects in Lebanon. The Lebanese Red Cross’ rigourous employment of theNeutrality Principle throughout times of war and turbulence, has rewarded them with areputation as a particularly successful National Society. Moreover, they are the onlyhumanitarian actor with national reach in Lebanon.The thesis builds on functional idea analysis and multimodal discourse analysis which hasbeen applied on inter alia anthropological monographs conducted in Lebanon, projectsinitiated by the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, as well as contentretrieved from the Lebanese Red Cross’ social media platforms.I examine the strategies employed by the Lebanese Red Cross to analyze how neutrality isconstructed in a sectarianized context. Further, I analyze how the anti-sectarianism of theOctober protests shaped the Lebanese Red Cross’ neutral stance. In sum, I find that themembers of the Lebanese Red Cross create a collective identity in the very same way as asectarian, ethnic or national identity is constructed. Through the process of differentiating, theLebanese Red Cross creates space outside the sectarian structure, where they, benefittingfrom the appreciation and recognition of their work as valuable, are allowed to be neutral.

På senaste år har trender inom hållbarhet och miljöarbetet fått mer uppmärksamhet. Allt fler organisationer och privatpersoner börjar bli mer medvetna om potentiella hot som kommer från klimat- och miljöförändringarna, därmed ökar efterfrågan på olika sätt att klimatkompensera. Många tidigare studier har tytt på att det huvudsakliga bakomliggande motivet till att klimatkompensera ska främst vara på grund av etiska skäl och att många företag vill helt enkelt bara ta ansvar för sina miljöskadliga aktiviteter. Dock finns det även andra anledningar som motiverar företagen till att klimatkompensera, bland annat ekonomiska skäl. Syftet med detta arbete är att identifiera genomförbara lösningar till hur små och mellanstora företag kan klimatkompensera för verksamhetens befintliga leveransflöden. Denna studie är baserad på den kvalitativa metoden med en deduktiv ansats. Datainsamling har gjorts i form av intervjuer och litteraturstudier, totalt fyra semi-strukturerade intervjuer har genomförts under arbetets gång. Alla intervjuer är inspelade och därmed transkriberade för att undvika låg validitet samt reliabilitet. Resultatet visade för att lyckas med klimatkompensation så krävs det förståelse om både om hur mycket utsläpp som ska kompenseras för samt vilket projekt som är mest relevant att finansiera. Det finns många aktörer som kan stå till hjälp för mindre företag som inte har resurser att genomföra en kartläggning om utsläpp på egen hand. / In recent years, there has been an uprising trend of sustainability and different environmental works have received more attention than before. Many organizations and individuals are becoming more aware of the potential threats that come from climate and environmental changes, thus increasing the demand for different ways of carbon offsetting. Many previous studies have suggested that the main underlying motive for carbon offsetting is mostly due to ethical reasons and that many companies just simply take responsibility for their environmentally harmful activities. However, it is believed that there could also be other reasons that motivate companies to carbon offset, namely economic reasons. The purpose of this thesis is to investigate and find possible solutions for how small and medium-sized companies can carbon offset for their supply chain regarding transportation. This study uses a qualitative method with a deductive approach. Data was collected through interviews and literatures, four interviews in total were conducted and was performed in a semistructural way. The Interviews were recorded and transcribed to avoid low validity and reliability. The result showed that in order to successfully compensate for your emissions, the company is required to understand both by how much of the emissions need to be compensated for and which project is most relevant to invest in. There are many actors who can be of much help to the smaller companies that lack the resources to do their own emission mapping.