Nas últimas décadas, a incidência de infecções hospitalares causadas por bactérias Gram-negativas multirresistentes vem crescendo de maneira vertiginosa em todo o mundo, de modo que a Organização Mundial de Saúde (OMS) recentemente reconheceu essas infecções como uma preocupação mundial devido ao seu impacto negativo sobre as taxas de mortalidade intra-hospitalar e dos custos da assistência à saúde, afetando tanto os países desenvolvidos quanto os em desenvolvimento. Atualmente considera-se que o uso racional de antimicrobianos, a higienização das mãos e o isolamento de contato são as principais medidas disponíveis para contenção desse avanço. Porém, elas são apenas parcialmente efetivas e de implementação trabalhosa e onerosa. Assim, considera-se necessário o desenvolvimento de formas mais simples e eficientes para lidar com esse problema. No presente estudo, nos propusemos a avaliar o impacto da administração de um produto simbiótico a pacientes colonizados e/ou infectados por bactérias Gram-negativas multirresistentes sobre a incidência subsequente de infecções hospitalares relacionadas ao trato respiratório e urinário. Trata-se de um ensaio clínico randomizado, duplamente cego, controlado com placebo, cuja intervenção consistiu na administração oral ou enteral diária de 1010 unidades de Lactobacillus bulgaricus e 1010 unidades de Lactobacillus rhamnosus associados a fruto-oligosacarídeos durante 7 dias, a pacientes internados em um hospital terciário, com colonização prévia por bactérias Gram-negativas multirresistentes, demonstrada por meio de cultura seletiva de swab retal. O desfecho primário do estudo foi a incidência de infecção hospitalar posterior à intervenção, que, na análise do tipo intenção de tratar foi 18/48 (37,50%) no grupo experimental e 12/53 (22,64%) no grupo controle (odds ratio ajustado=1,95, IC95%=0,69-5,50, p=0,21). Os desfechos secundários principais, também de acordo com a análise intenção de tratar, foram: o tempo de internação hospitalar; sendo a mediana de 17 dias no grupo controle e 31 dias no grupo experimental (p= 0,07), taxas de óbito; com valores de 3,77% no grupo placebo e 8,33% no grupo simbiótico (odds ratio ajustado = 1,34, IC95%= 0,454,00, p= 0,61) e ocorrência de eventos adversos; 7,55% no grupo que utilizou placebo e 6,25% no grupo sob intervenção (p= 1,00). Os dados obtidos pelo estudo nos levam à conclusão de que o simbiótico estudado demonstrou-se inefetivo na prevenção de infecções hospitalares do trato respiratório e urinário em pacientes colonizados e/ou infectados por bactérias Gram-negativas multirresistentes. / In recent decades the incidence of multidrug resistant Gram-negative nosocomial infections has been dramatically raising in the whole world. The World Health Organization (WHO) recently recognized nosocomial infections as a global concern due to its negative impact on patients, health care workers and health care institutions, affecting developed countries as well as developing ones. They negatively impact in-hospital mortality and healthcare related costs. Antibiotic stewardship, hand hygiene promotion and contact precautions are the main available measures to control such multidrug resistant Gram-negative organisms in hospitals. However, they are only partially effective as well as difficult to be implemented and expensive. Therefore, simpler and more effective actions are thought to be helpful and urgent. In the main study, we propose to analyze the impact of the administration of a symbiotic product on patients colonized and/or infected by Gram-negative multidrug resistant bacteria upon the subsequent incidence of respiratory and urinary tract nosocomial infections. A randomized, double- blinded, placebo controlled, clinical trial was proposed in order to provide oral or enteral daily administration of 1010 units of Lactobacillus bulgaricus and 1010 units of L. rhamnosus associated with fructo-oligosacharide (FOS) during 7 days, to previously colonized patients with multi-resistant Gram-negative bacteria, identified through selective culture of rectal swab, hospitalized in a tertiary-care hospital. The primary outcome was the incidence of nosocomial infections after the intervention, which in the intention to treat analysis was 18/48 (37,50%) in the experimental group versus 12/53 (22,64%) in the control group (adjusted odds ratio= 1,95, IC95%= 0,69-5,50, p=0,21). Secondary outcomes, according to intention to treat analysis, were hospital length of stay: median of 17 days in the control group and 31 days in the symbiotic group (p= 0,07), mortality rates: 3,77% in the placebo group versus 8,33% in the experimental group (adjusted odds ratio = 1,34, IC95%= 0,45 4,00, p= 0,61) and adverse effects: 7,55% in the control group and 6,25% in the intervention group (p= 1,00). The results of this study leads to the conclusion that the studied symbiotic proved to be ineffective to prevent nosocomial respiratory and urinary tract infections in patients colonized and/or infected by Gram-negative multi-resistant bacteria.

Hospital-acquired infections cost hospitals approximately $30.5 billion per year and also result in longer hospital stays, chronic conditions, and even death with associated malpractice costs. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, hand hygiene is a simple, effective way to prevent illness and infection. The purpose of this research was to determine if visitors to a neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) in a regional medical center comply with hand-washing policies and procedures. If NICU visitors wash their hands properly, they can prevent potentially fatal infections from spreading to patients, healthcare workers, and unaffected family members. Hand-washing compliance has been previously studied in NICU staff and other healthcare workers, but not solely visitors. The researcher observed more than 120 visitors as they entered the NICU to determine the number who washed their hands for the required three minutes. Based on the findings, NICU staff and administration will be encouraged to provide more effective education, post informative signs, and install equipment to encourage visitors to use proper hand-washing techniques. Effective hand-washing should result in lower infection rates among NICU patients and lower health care costs.

Transmissions based precautions are measures implemented in various clinical health care settings as a means to prevent the transmission of infectious diseases and decrease instances of healthcare acquired infections (HAI). HAI’s result in increased cost to hospitals, longer hospitalization for patients, increased patient suffering, and fatal patient outcomes. While staff member adherence to transmissions based precautions are mandated through various organizations and hospital policies, a review of literature indicates little research has been conducted regarding visitor compliance with transmission-based precautions. The potential implications in healthcare from visitor non-adherence acquired infections are unknown; revealing a gap in literature and supporting the need for further research to describe the phenomenon. Through utilization of a descriptive online survey instrument, the purpose of this descriptive study is to gain insight into why nurses believe visitors may or may not be compliant with transmission-based precautions. To collect the data, an online descriptive survey instrument was developed and distributed via email to all graduate students’ enrolled East Tennessee State University’s College of Nursing. Only ten participants met the eligibility requirements to participate in this study. Data was analyzed though a predictive analytics software and grouping responses into themes. Responses suggest that nurses feel visitors are not complying with transmission-based precautions because of a lack in education, not perceiving the infection as a threat, prior exposure to loved one at home, and inconvenience.

Nosocomial infections are acquired in health care settings and they can lead to catastrophic health care consequences for patients. These infections can also pose significant financial burdens on society and health care systems. Educating nurses on hand hygiene is essential to reducing infection rates. The research question for the study examined the effectiveness of hand hygiene among nurses in reduction of nosocomial infections and how can health care organizations develop educational strategies to reduce nosocomial infections to improve public confidence in health care systems. The purpose of this study was to educate nurses on how to reduce the incidence of nosocomial infections. The evidence-based practice model for this project was Florence Nightingale's environmental theory. The health belief model was used to identify the reasons for health care culture and how they inspire change. In this study, 2 licensed practical nurses and 2 registered nurses were educated on how to reduce nosocomial infections in acute care settings. Participants then completed a questionnaire to assess their knowledge of hand hygiene as a means of reducing nosocomial infections when caring for patients. All participants agreed that hand hygiene; reduces the risk of contracting a nosocomial infection, suggesting that the incidence of nosocomial infections within acute care settings maybe reduced through this education. This project has potential positive social change by educating first and second year nursing students on the importance of hand hygiene in reduction of nosocomial infections and preventing patients from sustaining further injuries while admitted in acute care settings.

Nosocomial infections are a cause of concern for hospital patients and the incidence rates of these infections are greater in intensive care units (ICUs) due to the invasive nature of treatments, additional risk factors and comorbidities, and therapies used. Invasive devices, such as vascular central lines, Foley catheters, and mechanical ventilators pose a risk for critically ill patients in the ICUs to develop device-related, healthcare-associated infections (HAI). The purpose of this study was to describe the epidemiological characteristics of patients who developed device-related HAIs within 3 ICU units (medical-surgical, cardiovascular, and neurosurgical) of an academic medical facility. The ecosocial theory of disease distribution provided the theoretical framework for the study to describe how ecological and social determinants interact and affect health variances. Secondary data were analyzed using analysis of variance (ANOVA), Pearson correlations, and chi-square statistical tests. A total of 4,213 patients admitted to the 3 ICUs from 2010-2014 were identified. According to the chi-square analysis, there was significant association between race/ethnicity and type of device-associated infection; between gender and types of infection; and between risk factors (diabetes, obesity, smoking habits) and kinds of infection, all of which the statistical significance had varied for each individual ICU. Bacterial differences were noted between device-associated infections. The potential positive social change from this study could be insight on possible new processes and interventions to reduce nosocomial infections and improve adult ICU patient outcomes such as decreased HAIs, decreased length of stay, comorbidities, and cost for both the patient and the hospital.

Bacillus anthracis and B. cereus are well known etiological agents, which cause disease in healthy and immunocompromised individuals. Considering the abundance and lethality of these organisms it is imperative that research is performed to identify and analyze new factors that may contribute to their pathogenicity. Camelysin is a membrane bound, zinc metalloprotease isolated from B. cereus. Assays performed on purified camelysin demonstrate that the protease exhibits fibrinolytic, collagenolytic, and actin degradation activity, any of which can contribute to the organisms ability to invade host tissues and cause damage. Considering the putative role of camelysin in pathogenicity, it would be beneficial to study the effects of camelysin in tissue cultures or animal models. The goal of this study focused on the cloning and expression of camelysin from B. cereus and its homolog in B. anthracis. Expression of a fusion tagged protein may assist in the purification of camelysin as well as overcoming the native proteins extreme insolubility. Primers were designed to amplify the camelysin gene from B. cereus for cloning into the prokaryotic pBAD TOPO® TA, pET100/D-TOPO®, and the eukaryotic pcDNA3.1/V5-His© TOPO[registered trademark] TA expression vectors. Primers were also designed to amplify the gene from B. anthracis for cloning into the pBAD TOPO® TA vector. The recombinant clones were induced and successful expression of the protein was confirmed by performing SDS-PAGE, Western blotting, and an azocasein protease assay. The recombinant proteins exhibited casein degradation activity which is observed with purified camelysin from B. cereus. This study successfully demonstrated the presence of the camelysin protein in B. anthracis. Furthermore, the recombinant clones obtained will be useful for purification and analysis of camelysin and delineation of its role in the pathogenicity of B. cereus and B. anthracis.

Neonatal septicaemia and nosocomial infection are major causes of morbidity in neonatal intensive care units (NICU) in both developed and developing countries. This study documents infective episodes at two resource disparate NICUs; the Grantley Stable Neonatal Unit (GSNU), Royal Brisbane and Women’s Hospital (RBWH), Australia 1997-2006 and Danang NICU, Vietnam. The specific aims are: 1. To compare the incidence of neonatal septicaemia at RBWH and Danang NICU. 2. To compare of the epidemiological characteristics of nosocomial infections in the two NICUs. 3. To study risk factors associated with nosocomial infection in the two NICUs (including staff numbers, infant numbers and nursing workload). 4. To review published guidelines on healthcare physical environments and staffing levels and to survey the GSNU & Danang NICU in relation to these. 5. To develop a prospective surveillance system to monitor infection episodes in Danang NICU 6. To recommend strategies for the control of neonatal sepsis in Danang NICU. The GSNU at the RBWH, Australia is a 71 bed neonatal care facility with an established infection surveillance system in a well resource environment. Danang NICU, Vietnam provides care to a high risk neonatal population with no established infection surveillance system in a developing country with more limited resources. This study found the GSNU had a low rate of neonatal septicaemia, during the ten year period from 1997 to 2006 with 253 babies (2.1%) diagnosed with septicaemia. In Danang NICU, in the year 2007 alone, there were 52 cases (2.9%) of septicaemia documented but the incidence of neonatal infection is likely to have underestimated due to (i) the failure to collect blood culture before commencing antibiotic treatment. (ii) Difficulties associated with data retrieval from maternal and neonatal records and (iii) lack of a systematic surveillance system with prospectively collected data. The organisms causing early onset and late onset septicaemia were substantially different in the two NICUs. Group B streptococcus (GBS) and Escherichia coli were the major organisms causing early onset sepsis (EOS) at the GSNU, accounting for 37.8% and 29.7% respectively, whilst coagulase-negative staphylococcus (CONS) was the commonest organism (25.7%) for late onset sepsis (LOS). In Danang NICU, Klebsiella spp was the major pathogen and was responsible for 75% of neonatal septicaemia in both early and late onset sepsis. The isolation of Klebsiella spp in a high proportion of infants at less than 48 hours may suggest nosocomial or maternal route of acquisition. The rate of GBS infections in Danang Hospital, Vietnam, is hard to estimate and interpret due to limited microbiologic data. The anti-serum used to classify the Streptococcal types is not readily available in Danang Hospital. In some cases, organisms that are isolated are suspected to be GBS however, this is not confirmed microbiologically. The study identifies a high prevalence of neonatal septicaemia in Danang NICU. It identifies a close relationship between rates of infection and poor nursing care practices and limited resources. The standard care system used at the GSNU as well as the international literature was studied in relation to infection control practices. This was then used to develop the following recommendations that specifically target a reduction in infection rates in Danang NICU: 1. Implement an infection surveillance system 2. Report regularly from the database and embed discussion of the data into unit management policy 3. Revise neonatal and pathology practice in relation to blood cultures 4. Use shorter duration of antibiotics course based on culture results 5. Modify care practices that expose infants to cross infection 6. Identify specific staff with particular responsibilities in maintenance of standards

Nosocomial infections associated with implanted medical- devices are on the rise due to a growing immunocompromised patient population. The organisms of interest in this study are Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Candida albicans. These organisms are opportunistic pathogens and are frequently implicated as the cause of infection and colonization of medical devices. P. aeruginosa is a motile gram-negative bacterium that is able to suppress the growth of C. albicans. Quourm sensing mimicry and biofilm formation on the hyphal surface of C. albicans by P. aeruginosa aids in suppression. C. albicans is a dimorphic fungus capable of quorum sensing with E,E-farnesol and is a central focus in this work. The goal of this project is to determine changes in protein expression when P. aeruginosa is exposed to E,E,-farnesol using 2D DIGE®. Changes in the cytosolic proteome of P. aeruginosa expose metabolic shifts that result in suppression of C. albicans. This work summarizes the effect of growth phase and concentration of E,E-farnesol on P. aeruginosa PAO1 and GSU3. Preliminary results reveal a general response of P. aeruginosa to C. albicans as changes in relevant metabolic nodes that affect pyocyanin production and the induction of virulence factors that lead to the killing of C. albicans. The overall goal of this study was to generate a profile of protein expression where a variety of conditions to further characterize the response could be easily assayed.

Bakgrund: Trots tydliga föreskrifter om basala hygienrutiner följs dessa inte alltid av personal på vårdavdelningar. Studier visar att orsaken till detta beror på olika faktorer. Syfte: Att undersöka kunskapen om, samt följsamheten till Socialstyrelsens föreskrifter om basala hygienrutiner hos undersköterskor, sjuksköterskor och läkare på ett universitetssjukhus i Mellansverige. Metod: En kvantitativ studie med deskriptiv och jämförande design. Datainsamlingen skedde med hjälp av ett observationsprotokoll samt en enkätundersökning. Antal medverkande i observationsmomentet var 93 deltagare respektive 81 i enkätundersökningen.  Data analyserades med ANOVA samt deskriptivt statistik. Resultat: Samtliga professioner hade relativt god kunskap gällande kunskapsfrågorna samt ansåg att kunskap är viktigt. Bristande kunskaper sågs gällande handdesinfektion samt regler för naglar och armbandsur. Gällande arbetskläder och håruppsättning var följsamheten god bland samtliga professioner. Gällande följsamheten i patientnära kontakt var följsamheten relativt god men skillnader inom olika områden kunde ses. Tidspress och placering av hygienprodukter visades påverka hur följsamheten sköts. Slutsats: Studien visar att följsamheten till de basala hygienrutinerna i helhet är relativt god bland professionerna. Dock ses brister vilket tyder på att kunskapen är otillräcklig. Ökad kunskap och förbättrad följsamhet kan leda till kortare vårdtider, minskat antal vårdrelaterade infektioner samt en ökad patientsäkerhet. / Background: Despite clear basic hygiene rules, the adherence is poor among healthcare workers. Previous studies have shown that this depends on several factors. Aim: To examine certified nursing assistants´, registered nurses´ and doctors´ knowledge and adherence of the basic hygiene rules at a teaching hospital in central Sweden. Method: A quantitative study with descriptive and comparative design was chosen. The data was collected using an observation protocol and a questionnaire. Number of participants in the observation was 93 persons and 81 persons in the questionnaire. The data was analyzed using ANOVA and descriptive statistics. Results: All participants had relatively good knowledge regarding the basic hygiene rules and they found the subject important. Lack of knowledge was seen regarding the use of hand disinfectants and in the use of wristwatches and rules for nails. Regarding rules for clothes and hair, adherence was good to the basic hygiene rules among all participants. In contact with the patient, adherence was relatively good. Time pressure and placement of hygiene products have been shown to affect compliance. Conclusion: The overall result shows that adherence to the basic hygiene rules is relatively high among all professions. Faults were seen due to lack of knowledge. Increased knowledge and improved adherence to the basic hygiene rules can result in shorter hospitalization, decreased nosocomial infections and increased patient safety.

Fundamento y Objetivo: El ictus constituye una causa importante de mortalidad ydiscapacidad. El objetivo del presente estudio es identificar los factores predictores de infecciónnosocomial en la fase aguda del ictus y como ésta influye en la morbimortalidad de estaenfermedad.Pacientes y Métodos: Estudio prospectivo observacional longitudinal de cohortes depacientes con ictus agudo. El ictus se diagnosticó según la definición dada por la OrganizaciónMundial de la Salud (OMS) y actualizada por la Sociedad Española de Neurología (SEN). Lainfección nosocomial se definió por los criterios de los Center for Disease Control (CDC) y losde la Sociedad Española de Enfermedades Infecciosas y Microbiología Clínica (SEIMC).Resultados: Se incluyó a 258 pacientes con ictus agudo. De éstos, 102 (39,5%)presentaron al menos, una infección nosocomial (45,5% M; edad X 78,2 DE 9,7). La estanciamedia hospitalaria fue significativamente mayor en los pacientes infectados 14,9 días (8,4) queen los no infectados 8,4 días (5,6) (p<0,001). 31 pacientes fallecieron, de los que 22 (71%)habían tenido al menos una infección. Al realizar análisis de regresión logística se observó quela alteración en la deglución (OR 12,7; IC 95% 5,3-30,1; p<0,001), la afectación motora crural(OR 4,5; IC 95% 1,7-12,3; p=0,003), la alteración del esfínter urinario (OR 2,9; IC 95% 1,3-6,4;p=0,009) y la diabetes mellitus (OR 2,3; IC 95% 1,1-4,7; p=0,03), se comportan comofactores predictores independientes que aumentan la probabilidad de infección nosocomial en elictus agudo. La escala de NIHSS >20 en el momento del ingreso (OR 17,3; IC 95% 5,1-59,5;p<0,001), el efecto masa diagnosticado en la TAC (OR 4,4; IC 95% 1,4-14; p=0,012), elempeoramiento neurológico durante las primeras 24 horas (OR 11,6; IC 95% 3,6-37,2;p<0,001), la infección respiratoria (OR 5,7; IC 95% 1,8-18,3; p=0,003) y la hiperglucemia a laadmisión (OR 6; IC 95% 1,5-25,6; p=0,015) son factores predictores independientes queaumentan la probabilidad de muerte en el ictus agudo. La escala de NIHSS>20 (OR 8,9; IC 95%2,7-29; p<0,001), el empeoramiento neurológico durante las primeras 24 horas (OR 8,1; IC 95%2,2-29,6%; p=0,002) y la alteración del control del esfínter urinario (OR 10,1; IC 95% 5-20,6;p<0,001) son factores predictores independientes del aumento de probabilidad de peor estadofuncional al alta.Conclusiones: La disfagia, la afectación motora crural, la incontinencia urinaria y ladiabetes mellitus, son las variables clínicas que se identifican como factores de riesgoindependientes para la infección nosocomial en la fase aguda del ictus. Esta complicaciónmédica, sobre todo la infección respiratoria, aumenta significativamente la probabilidad demuerte de esta enfermedad. / Background and Purpose: stroke is a very important cause of mortality and disability. Thisstudy has the objective to identify predictors factors and the clinical consequences ofnosocomial infection in acute stroke.Patients and Methods: we prospectively identified a consecutive cohort of patients who weeither admitted after an acute stroke. We used predefined diagnostic criteria by OMS and SENfor stroke and by CDC and SEIMC for infection.Results: 258 patients with acute stroke were included. 102 (39,5%) had at least one nosocomialinfection (45,5% M; edad X 78,2 DE 9,7). The mean hospital stay was 14,9 days (8,4) ininfection patients and 8,4 days (5,6) in no infection patients (p<0,001). 31 patients died and 22(71%) had at least one cause of infection. Using logistic regression analysis, the dysphagia (OR12,7; IC 95% 5,3-30,1; p<0,001) is the strongest and independient predictor of nosocomialinfection. Others factors are crural motor affectation (OR 4,5; IC 95% 1,7-12,3; p=0,003),urinary incontinence (OR 2,9; IC 95% 1,3-6,4; p=0,009) and diabetes mellitus (OR 2,3; IC 95%1,1-4,7; p=0,03). Baseline imbalance NIHSS >20 during the admission (OR 17,3; IC 95% 5,1-59,5; p<0,001), mas effect diagnosticated on TAC (OR 4,4; IC 95% 1,4-14; p=0,012), pooroutcome neurological during the first day (OR 11,6; IC 95% 3,6-37,2; p<0,001), chest infection(OR 5,7; IC 95% 1,8-18,3; p=0,003) and the hyperglucemia in admission (OR 6; IC 95% 1,5-25,6; p=0,015), are the independients predictors factors that increasing the likelihood formortality in acute stroke. Baseline imbalance NIHSS >20 (OR 8,9; IC 95% 2,7-29; p<0,001),poor outcome neurological during the first day (OR 8,1; IC 95% 2,2-29,6%; p=0,002) and theurinary incontinence (OR 10,1; IC 95% 5-20,6; p<0,001) are the independients predictorsfactors that increasing the likelihood of poor functional state in discharge.Conclusions: dysphagia, crural motor affectation, urinary incontinence and diabetes mellitusare the independients predictors factors that increasing the likelihood for nosocomial infectionin acute stroke. The chest infection increase significantly the likelihood of mortality during thehospital stay.