L’objectif de ce travail de thèse était de vérifier l’hypothèse selon laquelle les troubles olfactifs peuvent constituer des marqueurs de la dépression. Tout d’abord, deux études longitudinales ont évalué l’effet du traitement antidépresseur sur les atteintes olfactives et émotionnelles. Deux autres études ont étudié quelles atteintes olfactives peuvent aider à différencier la dépression d’une maladie d’Alzheimer débutante. Les résultats de ce travail ont confirmé la présence de marqueurs olfactifs d’état (pour les aspects hédonique et émotionnel) et de trait (pour les atteintes en rapport avec des capacités cognitives) dans la dépression. Par ailleurs, nos données ont mis en évidence des profils d’altérations différents dans la dépression et la maladie d’Alzheimer débutante, concernanat la mémoire de reconnaissance et l’identification des odeurs, ce qui pourrait aider à différencier ces deux maladies. D’autres travaux devront confirmer l’implication de ces marqueurs dans l’efficacité de la thérapie, le suivi et le diagnostic précoce des patients. / The aim of this study was to test the hypothesis of olfactory deficits as potential markers of depression. Firstly, two longitudinal studies have evaluated the effect of antidepressant treatment on olfactory and emotional alterations. In two other studies, we wanted to investigate which olfactory deficits could differentiate depression and early stage of Alzheimer’s disease. The results have confirmed the presence of state (for hedonic and emotional aspects) and trait (for alterations involving cognitive capacities) olfactory markers of depression. Besides, we have demonstrated two different profiles of alterations in depression and early stage of Alzheimer’s disease, concerning odors’ memory recognition and identification, which could help to discriminate these two diseases. Other investigations are necessary to confirm the implication of these markers in the efficiency of the therapy, the diagnostic and the take care of patients.

La vision est certainement le sens le plus développé chez les rapaces, souvent cités comme les vertébrés possédant la plus grande acuité visuelle. Pourtant, les rapaces figurent parmi les victimes les plus fréquentes des collisions avec des éoliennes et autres dispositifs anthropiques. Etant donné les enjeux de conservation et le coût des opérations de conservation, il est indispensable de mieux comprendre comment les capacités sensorielles des rapaces affectent leur technique de recherche alimentaire et les interactions avec les dispositifs anthropiques (par exemple jusqu’à quelle altitude/distance les vautours peuvent-ils être détecter les charniers et les obstacles potentiels et comment optimiser les mesures de gestion des habitats ?). En ce qui concerne l'olfaction, le postulat ancien que les oiseaux en général ont une olfaction quasi nulle est réfuté grâce à la publication récente d’expériences qui montrent le contraire chez plusieurs espèces d’oiseaux, des passereaux aux oiseaux marins. L’olfaction est-elle vraiment un sens « manquant » chez les rapaces? Pourquoi seuls les vautours américains auraient-ils développé un sens aigu de l’olfaction ? Notre projet d’étude de l’écologie sensorielle des rapaces repose principalement sur de test de conditionnement avec renforcement, conduits sur des oiseaux issus de plusieurs parcs zoologiques de France. L’originalité de notre projet serait de combiner des expériences de vision et d’olfaction, sur une grande diversité d’espèces (Vautours, Buses, Milans), d’origine phylogénétique, de régimes alimentaires et de technique de recherche alimentaire différents, à la fois au sol et en vol. La première étape aura lieu en conditions contrôlées en volières, avec des expériences de conditionnement opérant après dressage : réponses des oiseaux à différents stimuli visuels et odeur. Dans un deuxième temps des expériences en vol pourront être menées, sur des oiseaux dressés à effectuer des vols libres, dont les mouvements précis peuvent être suivis en 3 dimensions par des balises GPS couplées à des accéléromètres et des caméras vidéos. Il serait alors possible de connaître précisément les capacités sensorielles utilisées pour la recherche alimentaires de chaque espèce et d’analyser les comportements de vol en lien avec l'aérologie. / The vision is certainly the most developed sense in raptors, and these birds are cosidered as the vertebrates with the greatest visual acuity. However, raptors are among the most frequent victims of collisions with wind turbines and other human features. Given the conservation issues and the cost of conservation operations , it is essential to understand how sensory abilities of raptor affect their foraging ecology and interactions with human features (eg at which altitude / distance vultures can detected graves and potential obstacles and how optimize the measure of habitats management). But vision is not the only sense that raptor may have. Olfaction in birds was historically neglected, but recent evidence suggests that many bird species, from passerines to seabirds, use olfaction. Consequently, it make sense that olfaction may lead some behaviours in raptor too. To date however olfaction has been searched and shown only in the American vultures. Our project aims to study the sensory ecology of raptors based primarily on captive animals and condition protocols. The originality of our project is to combine the experience of vision and olfaction, on a wide variety of raptor species present in French zoos, with different phylogenetic origin, diets, and different foraging ecologies. The first step will takes place under controlled aviaries conditions, with operant conditioning experiments: responses of birds to different visual and odor stimuli. In a second phase, flight experiments will be conducted on birds trained to perform free flights, whose precise movements can be tracked in three dimensions by GPS tags coupled with accelerometers and cameras videos. It would then be possible to determine precisely the sensory capabilities used for food research for each species, and analyze the flight behaviour with respect to aerology

Les mécanismes précis à l’origine de la dépression ne sont pas encore élucidés. L’avènement des techniques de neuro-imagerie fonctionnelle telle que l’imagerie par résonance magnétique fonctionnelle (fMRI) fournit un outil puissant permettant non seulement de définir les circuits neurobiologiques perturbés dans la dépression, mais aussi de mieux comprendre la contribution de chaque région. Les objectifs de ce travail ont consisté à mettre en évidence : (i) les clusters neuronaux impliqués dans l’évaluation hédonique d’un odorat, (ii) les anomalies cérébrales fonctionnelles sous-tendant les déficits olfactifs dans l’épisode de dépression caractérisée (EDC) et (iii) les modulations de ces anomalies suite à un traitement d’antidépresseur. Trente-huit patients dépressifs et trente sujets sains ont été sélectionnés pour réaliser un examen de fMRI comprenant trois tâches olfactives, les trois odeurs sont la menthe crépue (odeur agréable), bois de santal (odeur neutre) et le lie de vin (odeur désagréable). D’après notre étude nous avons conclu que les patients déprimés présentent des anomalies de fonctionnement dans le thalamus qui peut être considéré un marqueur efficace pour le pronostic de la dépression. De plus, la fMRI constitue un bon outil pour juger de l’efficacité du traitement antidépresseur. / The precise mechanisms at the origin of the depression are not yet elucidated. The advent of functional neuroimaging techniques such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) has provided a powerful tool not only for defining the neurobiological circuits disturbed in depression, but also for better understanding the contribution of each region. The objectives of this work were to highlight: (i) the clusters involved in the hedonic evaluation of the smell (ii) the functional brain abnormalities underlying the olfactory deficits in the major depressive episode (MDE) and (iii) the modulations of these abnormalities following antidepressant treatment. Thirty-eight depressive patients and thirty healthy subjects were selected to perform a fMRI examination with three tasks: recognizing three smells which are the spearmint, sandalwood and wine lees. Based on our study, we can conclude that depressed patients have functional abnormalities in the thalamus, this region may be considered as a good marker for the prognosis of depression. In addition, fMRI could be a good tool to evaluate the treatment performance of antidepressant treatment.

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My thesis comprises a creative and a critical component. The creative component is a novel entitled Ambergris. Ambergris in both its synthetic and natural states is a fixative to contain the evanescence of scent; it is also a metaphor for my novel which is set against the background of perfume making and deals with expatriates and migrants. Through the formal structure of the novel I hope to make a contribution to literature and to engage with critical and social concerns of the expatriate condition such as the place of home, the experience of longing, and whether or not one can really ‘belong’. My critical essay is entitled "The Smell of Dislocation: Olfactory Imagery in Selected Works of Janette Turner Hospital". The words 'olfactory imagery' may seem to be a contradiction in terms due to the difficulty of containing scent and the paucity of olfactory language. Scent, however, has strong links to memory and place, and through its non-visual and associative qualities may bypass language. I argue that engagement with the representation of scent in fiction can expand the current categories of formalist criticism found in narrative theory and Creative Writing pedagogy. My essay examines how Janette Turner Hospital employs olfactory imagery in her ‘Australian’ stories and novels to represent the recurring themes of dislocation underscoring the lives of many of her characters. Despite the difficulty of representing smell in fiction, I explore possibilities for thematic considerations triggered by the percept of smell as experienced by Janette Turner Hospital's characters, narrators, and possibly readers. Such explorations deal with the links between scent and memory, the liminality of both scent and the expatriate condition, as well as a narrative methodology which considers psychological and cognitive reactions to scent and culminates in their 'mapping' and the 'slippage' of personal associations. Both thesis components examine expatriate identity and approach its fictional representation through the filter of expatriate perceptions. Awareness by readers of such perceptions may serve to amplify their own appreciation of the dislocation of such identities in fiction, and in our current world of growing and even shifting diasporas.

Olfaction mediates many aspects of the bank vole’s life. However, all the mechanisms are far from being fully understood. In the present context of habitat fragmentation, to study how olfactory cues can mediate its social processes, influence its active search for biotic resources and elicit its movements appears to be of major interest and is the main objective of this PhD-thesis. The research started with three behavioural experiments, performed under laboratory conditions. Bank voles were found to behave differently to scent marks according to the population of origin of the marker. They react more to odours from OPO conspecifics (i.e. members of an Other Population of Origin) than to odours from conspecifics belonging to their own population. A field enclosure experiment was then set up in order to study the ability of bank voles to distinguish between different artificial odours (i.e. extracted with methanol) sprayed on food. The results confirmed the attractiveness of OPO conspecific odours even extracted with methanol and tested in outdoor conditions. On the other hand, odours from terrestrial predators (i.e. weasel and red fox) were found to be strongly repulsive. The most attractive artificial olfactory marker (i.e. from OPO conspecific) and the most repulsive one (i.e. from weasel) were then tested on the spatial behaviour of voles. Both were used in a complex maze with attractive markers placed in pathways leading to the goal and repulsive markers placed in pathways to be avoided. Results obtained were inconclusive, none of the artificial marker showed an influence on movements of bank voles. As voles did not take heed of artificial markers while moving, we hypothesised that natural scented trails created by conspecifics, should direct the bank voles to the goal more efficiently than artificial markers did. However, the overall movements of bank voles were not significantly influenced by the presence of natural odours of conspecifics either. Original and convincing results were found on the use of olfaction in social and foraging contexts in bank voles. However, this four-year research did not come up with findings on whether and how olfactory cues can influence their spatial behaviour. The idea is worthwhile pursuing as proposed in the perspectives, and there is hope that in the future we may understand which elements elicit movements of bank voles for helping to counteract the impacts of habitat fragmentation on populations.

My thesis comprises a creative and a critical component. The creative component is a novel entitled Ambergris. Ambergris in both its synthetic and natural states is a fixative to contain the evanescence of scent; it is also a metaphor for my novel which is set against the background of perfume making and deals with expatriates and migrants. Through the formal structure of the novel I hope to make a contribution to literature and to engage with critical and social concerns of the expatriate condition such as the place of home, the experience of longing, and whether or not one can really ‘belong’. My critical essay is entitled "The Smell of Dislocation: Olfactory Imagery in Selected Works of Janette Turner Hospital". The words 'olfactory imagery' may seem to be a contradiction in terms due to the difficulty of containing scent and the paucity of olfactory language. Scent, however, has strong links to memory and place, and through its non-visual and associative qualities may bypass language. I argue that engagement with the representation of scent in fiction can expand the current categories of formalist criticism found in narrative theory and Creative Writing pedagogy. My essay examines how Janette Turner Hospital employs olfactory imagery in her ‘Australian’ stories and novels to represent the recurring themes of dislocation underscoring the lives of many of her characters. Despite the difficulty of representing smell in fiction, I explore possibilities for thematic considerations triggered by the percept of smell as experienced by Janette Turner Hospital's characters, narrators, and possibly readers. Such explorations deal with the links between scent and memory, the liminality of both scent and the expatriate condition, as well as a narrative methodology which considers psychological and cognitive reactions to scent and culminates in their 'mapping' and the 'slippage' of personal associations. Both thesis components examine expatriate identity and approach its fictional representation through the filter of expatriate perceptions. Awareness by readers of such perceptions may serve to amplify their own appreciation of the dislocation of such identities in fiction, and in our current world of growing and even shifting diasporas.

Learned expectations shape behaviours, thoughts, and thus the way the world is perceived. Olfactory perception is one of the less studied senses. One of the seminal issues regard possible differences in olfactory functioning between men and women. It is still unclear if a sex/gender difference exists and in that case what potential explanations could be. This work focused on exploring two salient explanations for possible sex/gender differences: innate differences as compared to gendered expectations. A between-subjects experiment where women and men rated the perceived properties of repeated odor exposure, either without prior information, or with gender-biased rating anchors was conducted. The experiment was conducted using flasks containing the odorant n-butanol. Participants were asked to rate the perceived intensity of the stimuli on a Borg CR-100 scale. Results were analysed in JASP using repeated measures analysis of variances (ANOVA). Bias significantly influenced the intensity ratings of both men and women to the same degree. This speaks against both innate differences and gendered expectations regarding olfaction. It, however, indicates a susceptibility to bias and the framing of information. Implications encompass, theoretically, that expectations change perception. Implications derived from that for applied (e.g., occupational/health) settings encompass the framing of expectation-related information regarding exposures or maladies.

The use of electrolytes in horses has become common in the equine community. Proper management of the equine athlete encourages the supplementation of electrolytes, especially during exercise. Electrolyte imbalance can cause physiological issues including fatigue, irregular heartbeat, cramping, and more. Electrolyte supplementation is utilized to replace losses via the sweat, urine, and defecation. Commercially available oral electrolyte forms include paste, powder, and pellets. Work describing chewable electrolyte use in horses has not been published. The objective of this work is two-fold: to determine preference across four electrolyte chew flavors and to ascertain efficacy of a novel electrolyte product. Protocol approval (#21-029) by Southern Illinois University Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee was obtained prior to initiation of this work. The study was completed in two phases. The first phase examined the palatability of the novel electrolyte chew while the second phase tested the serological effect of the product in exercising horses. In the first phase, stock-type horses (n = 10) were utilized for individual preference testing in palatability stocks over six days. During the palatability session, each horse was permitted 30 seconds to olfactorily investigate the product prior to release for consumption. Immediately following the olfactory period, each horse was allowed up to 5 minutes to voluntarily consume the electrolyte chews. Horses were presented with four treatments (A, B, C, D) on an alternating basis, with two treatments offered side-by-side per day. Treatment formulations consisted of the same base electrolyte content with varying flavors of peppermint, salt, and orchard grass (Table 2). Treatment locations were switched daily to prevent bias associated with location. Variables of interest included number of chews consumed (TI), first action (FA), first choice (FC), time spent consuming (TC) and water consumption (WC) were recorded. Bodyweight (BW) and body condition scores (BCS) were recorded twice over the study duration. Data were analyzed via numerical and categorical methods using PROC GENMOD, PROC FREQ & PROC GLM of SAS (v. 9.5). Significance was set at P < 0.05. There was no significant overall preference for any of the treatment formulations examined. However, there was a significant difference in chew consumption between days 1 and 2 (P = 0.0204). There was also a highly significant treatment effect between days 5 and 6 (P < 0.0001). The relationship between individual horse and consumption was variable and highly significant (P < 0.0001). The mean acceptance rate of the product was 63.6%. These results indicate palatability may differ significantly across horses for the flavors examined. In the second study phase, privately-owned local foxhunting horses (n = 15) were utilized in an exercise study. Due to poor consumption, nine horses were selected for use in the experiment to test treatments. There were three treatment groups: control (CON) offered no supplementation, light (LIG) consumed 6-9 chews, and moderate (MOD) voluntarily consumed 15-20 chews. Baseline jugular venipuncture and vitals assessments were completed on all horses prior to supplementation. Supplementation was offered in two parts: 30 minutes pre-ride and immediately following a 2-hour foxhunt ride in the afternoon. Afternoon temperature was 52°F with mostly sunshine and approximately 42% humidity. Upon return, horses were immediately offered electrolyte supplementation. Venipuncture and vitals assessments were repeated 30 minutes post-ride. Variables recorded were serum values (Na, K, Cl, Ca, HCO−3, Mg), chew consumption (TI), age, respiratory rate (RR), skin turgor (SKN), rectal temperature (BT), distance travelled (DIS) and average speed (SPD). Categorical variables were body condition score (BCS), sex, breed (BRD), and sweat rating (SWR). Data was analyzed via PROC GLM, PROC FREQ and PROC REG dependent on test with SAS (v. 9.5). Significance for all tests was set at P < 0.05. Serological values were unaffected by electrolyte consumption (P > 0.05). Body temperature was significantly higher for all horses following exercise, regardless of treatment group (P = 0.0005). Skin turgor showed significantly more time before return to original state during post-ride evaluation (P = 0.0013). Directional serum changes between Cl and K were significantly correlated (P = 0.0227) as well as Mg and Cl (P = 0.0316). Correlations of relational change between Ca and HCO−3 in addition to Ca and Na were approaching significance (P = 0.0707; P = 0.0800). Mares demonstrated a greater ability to maintain lower post-ride serum calcium levels than geldings (P = 0.013). The effect of breed on serological calcium change may also be considered (P = 0.0312). These results suggest that several major contributive factors require further investigation for the successful implementation of oral electrolyte chews into equine exercise regimens.

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