Schmerz gehört zu den Kardinalsymptomen einer Entzündung. Im Wesentlichen kann die Entstehung von Schmerz am Ort des Entzündungsgeschehens auf das Einwandern (Diapedese) von Leukozyten aus dem peripheren Blut-strom in das Gewebe zurückgeführt werden. Dort findet sowohl die Produktion von Zytokinen und Chemokinen statt, welche weitere Entzündungszellen rekrutieren und die Entzündungsreaktion verstärken, als auch die Freisetzung von Opioidpeptiden, die schmerzlindernd wirken. In Vorarbeiten der Arbeitsgruppe konnte eine Opioidfreisetzung aus neutrophilen Granulozyten nach Stimulation mit bakteriellen Antigenen oder Chemokinen \(in\) \(vitro\) nachgewiesen werden. Diese führen \(in\) \(vivo\) eine Antinozizeption herbei. Für neutrophile Granulozyten wurden der Chemokinrezeptor CXCR1/2 sowie der Formylpep-tidrezeptor als Signal-transmittierende Rezeptoren identifiziert. Über den klassischen Mechanismus der Exozytose gelangt das Beta-Endorphin somit in das Gewebe und interagiert mit Opioidrezeptoren auf primär sensorischen Nervenendigungen. \(in\) \(vivo\) äußerte sich die Freisetzung des Opioidpeptids in einer Anhebung mechanischer Schmerzschwellen, die durch den Opioidrezeptorantagonisten Naloxon aufgehoben werden konnten. Die Bindung, vornehmlich an MOP, führt zur Erniedrigung des cAMP-Spiegels, zur Hyperpolarisation der Nervenzelle und zur Verminderung von Schmerzschwellen. Im Mittelpunkt dieser Arbeit stehen Monozyten als führende Zellpopulation der späten Entzündungsphase. Es sollte untersucht werden, welche Rezeptoren eine Opioidfreisetzung aus Monozyten vermitteln sowie welche intrazellulären Signalwege involviert sind. Humane Monozyten wurden isoliert und \(in\) \(vitro\) mit dem bakteriellen Antigen Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimuliert. Dieses steht exemplarisch für mikrobielles Infektgeschehen und Entzündung. In den Zellüberständen wurde mittels ELISA die Beta-Endorphin-Konzentration ermittelt. Weiterhin wurden Opioidgehalt und -freisetzung in der nicht-klassischen CD14+CD16+ Monozytensubpopulation im Vergleich zu klassischen CD14+CD16- Monozyten analysiert. Zur weiteren Aufklärung des Rezeptors, welcher die Opioidfreisetzung vermittelt, wurde der niedermolekulare TLR4-Antagonist TAK-242 genutzt. Wir fanden eine Zunahme der Beta-Endorphin-Freisetzung nach Stimulation mit LPS im Vergleich zur unstimulierten Kontrolle. Eine Zugabe des TLR4-Inhibitors reduzierte die Beta-Endorphin-Freisetzung signifikant. TLR4 agiert somit als PRR für die Opioidfreisetzung aus Monozyten. CD14+CD16+ Monozyten enthalten einen geringeren Anteil an Beta-Endorphin und setzten dementsprechend weniger frei. Ihre Rolle als pro-inflammatorisch und ihre Beteiligung an der Genese inflammatorischer Krankheitsbilder wird dadurch gestützt. Die Signalkaskade, über die diese Freisetzung erfolgt, konnte durch den Einsatz von Rezeptorinhibitoren dahingehend entschlüsselt werden, dass eine Beteiligung des IP3-Rezeptors sowie von intrazellulärem Calcium wichtig ist. Ferner wurde evident, dass auch eine basale Freisetzung existiert, die über denselben Weg verläuft. Durch die Behandlung mit dem TLR4-Antagonisten TAK-242, der die Freisetzung von Beta-Endorphin \(in\) \(vitro\) unterdrückt, wird auch die analgetische Wirkung von LPS \(in\) \(vivo\) aufgehoben. TLR4 Agonisten sind daher potentielle alternative Analgetika, welche die endogene Schmerzkontrolle unterstützen könnten. Jedoch fließen viele Wechselwirkungen wie z.B. proalgetische Wirkungen von TLR4 in das komplexe Gefüge der Immunzellantwort ein. Diese wurden nicht weiter untersucht. Vor einer klinischen Anwendung müssten solche Effekte näher betrachtet werden. / Endogenous opioids from monocytes mediate tonic endogenous antinociception in the late phase of inflammation. Monocytes expressing TLR4 dose-dependently released \(\beta\)-END after stimulation with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) dependent on intracellular calcium. \(in\) \(vitro\) \(\beta\)-endorphin (\(\beta\)-END) content increased during human monocyte differentiation as well as in anti-inflammatory CD14\(^+\)CD16\(^-\) monocytes. Peripheral TLR4 acts as a counter-regulatory mechanism for inflammatory pain \(in\) \(vivo\), and increases the release of opioid peptides from monocytes \(in\) \(vitro\). TLR4 antagonists as new treatments for sepsis and neuropathic pain might unexpectedly enhance pain by impairing peripheral opioid analgesia.

Münster (Westfalen), Universiẗat, Diss., 2008 (Nur beschränkt für den Austausch).

Universiẗat, Diss., 1999--Halle.

Submitted by Socorro Pontes (socorrop@ufersa.edu.br) on 2017-06-21T13:36:52Z No. of bitstreams: 1 TalytaLN_TESE.pdf: 1505855 bytes, checksum: f450d9b1a9eb7f3e1dc8fddf45518523 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Vanessa Christiane (referencia@ufersa.edu.br) on 2017-06-22T11:39:09Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 TalytaLN_TESE.pdf: 1505855 bytes, checksum: f450d9b1a9eb7f3e1dc8fddf45518523 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Vanessa Christiane (referencia@ufersa.edu.br) on 2017-06-22T11:41:55Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 TalytaLN_TESE.pdf: 1505855 bytes, checksum: f450d9b1a9eb7f3e1dc8fddf45518523 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-06-22T11:42:26Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 TalytaLN_TESE.pdf: 1505855 bytes, checksum: f450d9b1a9eb7f3e1dc8fddf45518523 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2017-04-24 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Tramadol is an atypical opioid analgesic widely used in humans and in the routine of the small animal clinic. Due to the lack of studies that determine its pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic characteristics, its use in production animals is restricted. The objective of this research was to evaluate the clinical, familial and bioavailability effects of tramadol in goats. The study was divided into two phases: the first one evaluated the clinical effects of tramadol at doses of 2 and 4 mg / kg intravenously; In the second stage, the bioavailability and pharmacokinetic parameters of tramadol and O-desmethyltramadol were evaluated after intravenous and intramuscular administration at a dose of 4 mg / kg. Opioid has been shown to be safe and effective in the control of orchiectomy pain and should be given every 6 and 8 hours at doses of 2 and 4 mg / kg. The intramuscular opioid has bioavailability of 62%. The data from this research provide information on tramadol and its metabolites, and serve as the basis for future studies involving the drug and the plasm / O tramadol é um analgésico opioide atípico amplamente utilizado em humanos e na rotina da clínica de pequenos animais. Devido ausência de estudos que determinam as características farmacocinéticas e farmacodinâmicas, sua utilização em animais de produção é restrita. Objetivou-se com esta pesquisa avaliar os efeitos clínicos, farmacocinética e biodisponibilidade do tramadol em caprinos. O estudo foi dividido em duas fases: na primeira, realizou-se avaliação dos efeitos clínicos do tramadol nas doses de 2 e 4 mg/kg intravenoso em caprinos submetidos a orquiectomia e na segunda etapa, realizou-se avaliação da biodisponibilidade e dos parâmetros farmacocinéticos do tramadol e O-desmetiltramadol após administração intravenosa e intramuscular em caprinos, na dose de 4 mg/kg. O opioide mostrou-se seguro e eficaz no controle da dor da orquiectomia, devendo ser administrado a cada 6 e 8 horas, nas doses de 2 e 4 mg/kg. O opioide intramuscular tem biodisponibilidade de 62%. Os dados desta pesquisa fornecem informações relevantes a respeito do tramadol e seus metabólitos e servem de base para estudos futuros envolvendo o fármaco e a matriz biológica / 2017-06-21

Submitted by Nathalia Nahas Donatello (nathalia.donatello@unisul.br) on 2017-09-06T19:45:38Z No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 811 bytes, checksum: e39d27027a6cc9cb039ad269a5db8e34 (MD5) DISSERTAÇÃO Nathalia Donatello - versão final 05.09.17.pdf: 3707450 bytes, checksum: 1d6a69ec312f3e7a888b2f88ef451cfa (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Caroline Correa da Cruz (caroline.cruz@unisul.br) on 2017-09-06T20:00:50Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 811 bytes, checksum: e39d27027a6cc9cb039ad269a5db8e34 (MD5) DISSERTAÇÃO Nathalia Donatello - versão final 05.09.17.pdf: 3707450 bytes, checksum: 1d6a69ec312f3e7a888b2f88ef451cfa (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-09-06T20:00:51Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 811 bytes, checksum: e39d27027a6cc9cb039ad269a5db8e34 (MD5) DISSERTAÇÃO Nathalia Donatello - versão final 05.09.17.pdf: 3707450 bytes, checksum: 1d6a69ec312f3e7a888b2f88ef451cfa (MD5) Previous issue date: 2017-07-14 / Introdução: O óleo essencial de Lavandula angustifólia (OELa) tem sido utilizado amplamente na aromaterapia no tratamento de diversas condições clínicas, com evidências do potencial analgésico e antiinflamatório. Objetivo: O presente estudo investigou o efeito da inalação do OELa sobre a hiperalgesia mecânica em dois modelos animais de dor crônica e o possível envolvimento do sistema opioide neste efeito. Métodos: Os constituintes do OELa foram caracterizados pela análise fitoquímica por meio de cromatografia gasosa acoplada a espectrometria de massa (CG-EM). Os experimentos comportamentais foram conduzidos após a aprovação pela Comissão de Ética no Uso de Animais da UNISUL – CEUA/UNISUL. Utilizou-se camundongos Swiss fêmeas pesando de 25 a 35g. Para indução da síndrome da dor regional complexa do tipo 1 (SDRC-1), os animais foram submetidos à isquemia/reperfusão (IR) da pata posterior. A dor inflamatória crônica foi induzida pela injeção intraplantar (i.pl.) do adjuvante completo de Freund (CFA). Em ambos modelos os animais receberam tratamento agudo e diário com o OELa. Os animais foram avaliados após os tratamentos quanto a hiperalgesia mecânica (pelo teste de von Frey) e atividade locomotora (teste do campo aberto). Para avaliar o envolvimento do sistema opioide, os animais receberam pré-tratamento com naloxona, administrada intraperitoneal (i.p.), intratecal (i.t.) ou i.pl. Resultados: Identificou-se sessenta e cinco elementos no OELa. Dentre os compostos encontrados, os majoritários foram o linalol (30,61%) e o acetato de linalila (20,36%). Também foi observado que a inalação do OELa produziu: i) efeito anti-hiperalgésico na SDRC-I, ii) efeito anti-hiperalgésico na dor inflamatória induzida por CFA e, iii) ativação de receptores opioide periféricos e espinais. Conclusão: A inalação do OELa mostrou eficácia (prova de conceito) em reduzir a hiperalgesia mecânica em condições de dor crônica do tipo inflamatória e neuropática. E este efeito parece ser mediado, pelo menos em parte, por receptores opioides periféricos e centrais.

To this day, opioids represent the most effective class of drugs for the treatment of severe pain. On a molecular level, all opioids in use today are agonists at the μ-opioid receptor (μ receptor). The μ receptor is a class A G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR). GPCRs are among the biological structures most frequently targeted by pharmaceuticals. They are membrane bound receptors, which confer their signals into the cell primarily by activating a variety of GTPases called G proteins. In the course of the signaling process, the μ receptor will be phosphorylated by GRKs, increasing its affinity for another entity of signaling proteins called β-arrestins (β-arrs). The binding of a β-arr to the activated μ receptor will end the G protein signal and cause the receptor to be internalized into the cell. Past research showed that the μ receptor’s G protein signal puts into effect the desired pain relieving properties of opioid drugs, whereas β-arr recruitment is more often linked to adverse effects like obstipation, tolerance, and respiratory depression. Recent work in academic and industrial research picked up on these findings and looked into the possibility of enhancing G protein signaling while suppressing β-arr recruitment. The conceptual groundwork of such approaches is the phenomenon of biased agonism. It appreciates the fact that different ligands can change the relative contribution of any given pathway to the overall downstream signaling, thus enabling not only receptor-specific but even pathway-specific signaling. This work examined the ability of a variety of common opioid drugs to specifically activate the different signaling pathways and quantify it by means of resonance energy transfer and protein complementation experiments in living cells. Phosphorylation of the activated receptor is a central step in the canonical GPCR signaling process. Therefore, in a second step, expression levels of the phosphorylating GRKs were enhanced in search for possible effects on receptor signaling and ligand bias. In short, detailed pharmacological profiles of 17 opioid ligands were recorded. Comparison with known clinical properties of the compounds showed robust correlation of G protein activation efficacy and analgesic potency. Ligand bias (i.e. significant preference of any path- way over another by a given agonist) was found for a number of opioids in native HEK293 cells overexpressing μ receptor and β-arrs. Furthermore, overexpression of GRK2 was shown to fundamentally change β-arr pharmacodynamics of nearly all opioids. As a consequence, any ligand bias as detected earlier was abolished with GRK2 overexpression, with the exception of buprenorhin. In summary, the following key findings stand out: (1) Common opioid drugs exert biased agonism at the μ receptor to a small extent. (2) Ligand bias is influenced by expression levels of GRK2, which may vary between individuals, target tissues or even over time. (3) One of the opioids, buprenorhin, did not change its signaling properties with the overexpression of GRK2. This might serve as a starting point for the development of new opioids which could lack the ability of β-arr recruitment altogether and thus might help reduce adverse side effects in the treatment of severe pain. / Nach wie vor stellen Opioide die wirkstärkste Gruppe von Medikamenten zu Behandlung starker Schmerzen dar. Auf molekularer Ebene sind alle heute gebräuchlichen Opioide Agonisten am μ-Opioidrezeptor. Der μ-Opioidrezeptor ist ein G-Protein-gekoppelter Rezeptor (GPCR) der Klasse A. GPCR zählen zu den häufigsten Zielstrukturen von Pharmaka. Sie sind membranständige Rezeptoren, die ihr Signal in erster Linie durch die Aktivierung von G-Proteine genannten GTPasen in die Zelle weiterleiten. Im Laufe des Signalprozesses wird der GPCR von GRK phosphoryliert, wodurch seine Affinität zu einer weiteren Gruppe von Signalproteinen, den sog. β-Arrestinen erhöht wird. Bindet ein β-Arrestin an den Rezeptor, beendet dies das G-Proteinsignal und veranlasst die Internalisierung des Rezeptors ins Zellinnere. Bisherige Forschung zeigte, dass das G-Proteinsignal des μ-Opioidrezeptors die erwünschte Schmerzlinderung vermittelt, wohingegen die Rekrutierung von β-Arrestin oftmals mit unerwünschten Wirkungen wie Obstipation, Toleranzentwicklung und Atemdepression in Verbindung gebracht wird. Neuere akademische und industrielle Forschung griff diese Erkenntnisse auf und erkundete die Möglichkeit, das G-Proteinsignal zu verstärken und zur gleichen Zeit die β-Arrestinrekrutierung zu inhibieren. Die theoretische Grundlage solcher Ansätze liegt im Konzept des biased agonism. Dieses berücksichtigt die Tatsache, dass verschiedene Liganden den Anteil eines bestimmten Signalweges am gesamten vom Rezeptor ausgehenden Signals beeinflussen kann und damit nicht nur rezeptor-, sondern sogar signalwegspezifische Signale möglich sein sollten. Die vorliegende Arbeit untersuchte eine Reihe von gängigen Opioiden auf ihre Fähigkeit hin, die einzelnen Signalwege spezifisch zu aktivieren und quantifizierte dies mit Methoden des Resonanzenergietransfers sowie der Proteinkomplementierung in lebenden Zellen. Die Phosphorylierung des Rezeptors ist ein zentrales Ereignis in der anerkannten Abfolge der Signalprozesse an GPCR. Daher wurde in einem weiteren Schritt die Expression der phosphorylierenden GRK erhöht und nach möglichen Auswirkungen auf die Selektivität der Signalwegaktivierung gesucht. Hierbei wurde detaillierte pharmakologische Profile von 17 Opioiden erstellt. Der Abgleich mit bekannten klinischen Wirkeigenschaften der Substanzen zeigte einen robusten Zusammenhang zwischen der Fähigkeit, G-Proteine zu aktivieren und der analgetischen Wirkstärke. Ligand bias, d.h. die signifikante Bevorzugung eines Signalweges gegenüber einem anderen durch einen Liganden, konnte für eine Reihe von Opioiden in lebenden HEK293-Zellen gezeigt werden, die den μ-Opioidrezeptor sowie β-Arrestine überexprimierten. Darüber hinaus konnte gezeigt werden, dass die zusätzliche Überexpression von GRK2 die pharmakodynamischen Eigenschaften nahezu aller Opioide grundlegend veränderte. In der Folge war jeder zuvor gezeigte ligand bias mit Ausnahme von Buprenorphin aufgehoben. Zusammenfassend stehen die folgenden drei Erkenntnisse im Vordergrund: (1) Gängige Opioide zeigen in einem gewissen Maß Selektivität zwischen den Signalwegen. (2) Ligand bias wird beeinflusst von GRK2-Expressionsleveln, welche zwischen Individuen, verschiedenen Gewebetypen oder auch im zeitlichen Verlauf variieren können. (3) Als einziges der untersuchten Opioide änderte Buprenorphin seine Signaleigenschaften durch die Überexpression von GRK2 nicht. Dies könnte als Anknüpfungspunkt in der Entwicklung neuer Opioide dienen, die keinerlei β-Arrestinrekrutierung bewirken und dadurch helfen könnten, unerwünschte Wirkungen in der Behandlung starker Schmerzen zu verhindern.

Opioide gehören zu den potentesten Analgetika für die Behandlung akuter und chronischer Schmerzen, werden jedoch in ihrer Anwendung durch analgetische Toleranz aber auch Nebenwirkungen wie Abhängigkeit, Atemdepression und Obstipation limitiert. Opioid-Analgetika vermitteln dabei nahezu alle klinisch relevanten Wirkungen durch Stimulation des μ-Opioidrezeptors, einem G- Protein-gekoppelten Rezeptor. Die „klassische“ Signaltransduktion durch Aktivierung inhibitorischer Gi/0-Proteine kann durch G-Protein gekoppelte Rezeptorkinasen (GRKs) und β-Arrestine negativ reguliert werden. Zusätzlich können durch β-Arrestin-Bindung an den Rezeptor G-Protein-unabhängige Signalwege aktiviert werden. Die genauen Mechanismen wie β-Arrestin- assoziierte Rezeptordesensibilisierung, -internalisierung und G-Protein- unabhängige Signalwege an der physiologischen Antwort und insbesondere an Toleranzentwicklung und Abhängigkeit von Opioid-Analgetika beteiligt sind, können bislang nicht ausreichend erklärt werden. In dieser Arbeit konnte in HEK293-Zellen mit Lebendzell-Konfokalmikroskopie und Luciferase-Komplementierung für 17 Opioide eine differenzierte β-Arrestin2- Rekrutierung zum μ-Opioidrezeptor gezeigt werden. Von den untersuchten Opioiden sind 13 häufig eingesetzte Opioid-Analgetika. Durch die Erstellung detaillierter pharmakologischer Profile ließen sich die Opioide bezüglich ihres β- Arrestin2-Rekrutierungsvermögens in Voll-, Partial und Antagonisten eingruppieren. Bemerkenswert war die fehlende β-Arrestin2-Rekrutierung für Buprenorphin, Tramadol und Tilidin, sodass diese interessante Substanzen für weitere Untersuchungen in physiologischerem Kontext sind. Durch Überexpression von GRK2 konnte die β-Arrestin2-Rekrutierung insbesondere für Partialagonisten gesteigert werden, was die Abhängigkeit der β-Arrestin- Rekrutierung vom GRK-Expressionslevel, das in verschiedenen Assays und Gewebetypen variieren kann, zeigt. Außerdem konnte ein heterogenes Bild der Rezeptorregulierung demonstriert werden, welches indirekt durch Endozytosehemmung unter Verwendung von Dynamin-Inhibitoren erfasst wurde. Die erhobenen Daten dienen als Anknüpfungspunkt für weiteren Arbeiten auf dem Gebiet der μ-Opioidrezeptorregulation. Ein besseres Verständnis der molekularen Mechanismen ist nötig, um sichere und nebenwirkungsärmere Opioid-Analgetika entwickeln zu können. / Opioids remain among the most effective analgesics for the treatment of acute and chronic pain, but their clinical use is limited by analgesic tolerance and other side effects including dependence, respiratory depression and obstipation. Opioid analgesics exert nearly all their clinically relevant actions through stimulation of µ-opioid receptors, which belong to the family of G Protein-coupled receptors. “Classical” signaling through activation of inhibitory Gi/o Proteins can be negatively regulated via G Protein-coupled receptor kinases and β-Arrestins. Additionally, recruitment of β-Arrestins to the µ-opioid receptor can transduce G Protein independent signals. The detailed mechanisms how β-Arrestin-induced receptor desensitization, internalization and G Protein independent signaling mediate physiological effects including tolerance and dependence remains unclear. In this study using confocal live-cell imaging and split luciferase complementation in HEK293 cells 17 opioids showed differential β-Arrestin2 recruitment to the µ-opioid receptor. Of the opioids under investigation, 13 are frequently administered opioid analgesics. Detailed pharmacologic profiles of these opioids allowed for grouping into full agonists, partial agonist and antagonists in regards to β-Arrestin2 recruitment. Surprisingly, β-Arrestin2 recruitment was not detected for Buprenorphin, Tramadol and Tilidin, making these substances interesting candidates for further investigations in a more physiological setting. Overexpression of GRK2 led to increased β-Arrestin2 recruitment especially for partial agonists. This demonstrates the dependence on GRK expression level for β-Arrestin recruitment, which can vary between assays or cell types. Furthermore different opioids showed a heterogenous receptor regulation, assessed by inhibition of receptor endocytosis using dynamin inhibitors. The collected data serve as basis for further research on µ-receptor regulation. Better understanding of the molecular mechanisms is necessary for the development of safer opioid analgesics with fewer side effects.

Submitted by Ana Maria Fiscina Sampaio (fiscina@bahia.fiocruz.br) on 2015-10-13T12:34:40Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Ana Isabel Reis Nascimento. Participação...2015.pdf: 1631129 bytes, checksum: d14aa063c882bb96ee29f85751abf2e6 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Ana Maria Fiscina Sampaio (fiscina@bahia.fiocruz.br) on 2015-10-13T12:34:59Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 Ana Isabel Reis Nascimento. Participação...2015.pdf: 1631129 bytes, checksum: d14aa063c882bb96ee29f85751abf2e6 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2015-10-13T12:34:59Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Ana Isabel Reis Nascimento. Participação...2015.pdf: 1631129 bytes, checksum: d14aa063c882bb96ee29f85751abf2e6 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2015 / Fundação Oswaldo Cruz. Centro de Pesquisas Gonçalo Moniz. Salvador, BA, Brasil / Alguns estudos sugerem que as vias opioidérgicas centrais parecem desempenhar um papel regulatório no controle da ingestão de água e sal em mamíferos. As ações dos opioides centrais sobre a regulação do controle hidroeletrolítico são mediadas por vários dos subtipos de receptores opioides. O papel dos receptores delta e kappa-opioides centrais neste processo não está adequadamente elucidado sendo necessário mais estudos que o esclareçam. Objetivo: Este estudo investigou o envolvimento dos receptores delta e kappa-opioides centrais no apetite por sódio em ratos depletados deste íon e em rato ativados centralmente com angiotensina. Material e Métodos: Foram utilizados ratos Wistar (270 ± 20 g), submetidos à cirurgia estereotáxica para implante de cânula guia no ventrículo lateral esquerdo (VL), no órgão subfornical (OSF), no núcleo preóptico mediano (MnPO) e no núcleo basolateral da amígdala (BLA). No protocolo de depleção de sódio os animais foram submetidos à injeção subcutânea de furosemida combinada com dieta hipossódica quatro dias após a cirurgia. Neste modelo de estudo os animais receberam injeção intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) do antagonista delta-opioide naltrindole no quinto dia pós-cirúrgico, nas doses de 5, 10 e 20 nmol/2 μL e do antagonista kappa-opioide, norbinaltorfimina, injetado no OSF, MnPO e BLA, nas doses de 0,5, 1,0 e 2,0 nmol/0,2 μL.. O agonista específico para os receptores delta-opioides, deltorfina II (2,5, 5,0, 10 e 20 nmol/2 μL), foi injetado i.c.v. em animais depletados de sódio pré-tratados com naltrindole na dose de 20 nmol/2 μL e em animais repletos de sódio na dose de 20 nmol/2 μL. O agonista kappa-opioide, ICI199,441 (2,0 nmol/0,2 μL) foi injetado no OSF, MnPO e BLA em animais depletados de sódio pré-tratados com norbinaltorfimina 2,0 nmol/0,2 μL e em animais repletos de sódio na dose de 2,0 nmol/0,2 μL. Bebedouros de água destilada (H2Od) e de salina foram introduzidos nas caixas15 minutos após a injeção central e tiveram seus volumes monitorados nos tempos 5, 10, 15, 30, 45, 60, 90 e 120 minutos, após a colocação dos bebedouros. No protocolo de ativação angiotensinérgica central, quarto dia após a cirurgia os animais sofreram administração i.c.v. de naltrindole (5, 10 e 20 nmol/2 μL) 15 minutos antes de receberem injeções de angiotensina II na dose de 10 ng/2 μL. Os bebedouros de H2Od e de solução salina foram introduzidos nas caixas logo após a segunda injeção e tiveram seus volumes monitorados nos tempos 5, 10, 15, 30, 45, 60, 90 e 120 minutos, após a colocação dos bebedouros. Para verificar a especificidade de ação dos antagonistas opioides os animais foram submetidos aos testes de sobremesa, campo aberto e medida da pressão arterial. A análise estatística utilizada foi ANOVA modelo misto para medidas repetidas seguida do pós-teste de Bonferroni para múltiplas comparações dos volumes ingeridos e teste “t” de Student não pareado para análise dos testes de comportamento, através do programa GraphPad Prism 6.0. Resultados: Os grupos de ratos que receberam injeções i.c.v. de naltrindole após depleção de sódio e ativação angiotensinérgica central, apresentaram redução estatisticamente significante na ingestão de salina quando comparados ao grupo de animais controles. Os ratos que receberam injeção de norbinaltorfimina no OSF, MnPO e BLA após depleção de sódio apresentaram redução estatisticamente significante na ingestão de salina quando comparados ao grupo de animais controles. A estimulação dos receptores delta-opioides em animais repletos de sódio aumentou a ingestão de salina hipertônica. Conclusões: Os dados presentes sugerem que os receptores delta-opioides centrais e os receptores kappa-opioides localizados no OSF, MnPO e BLA parecem desempenhar papel fundamental na expressão do comportamento de aquisição de sal em ratos que sofreram depleção de sódio e ativação central do apetite por sódio induzido pela via angiotensinérgica. / Central opioid pathways seem to have an important role on the control of water and salt intake in mammals, and brain opioid peptides may influence hydroelectrolyte balance through a myriad of actions mediated by distinct opioid receptors. The specific role of central delta and kappa-opioid receptors (DOR and KOR) in this process is far from being fully understood. In the present work, we investigated the role of those receptors in the control of water and salt intake, in sodium-depleted rats and rats with activation central angiotensinergic. Method: Wistar male rats (250 ± 20 g) were used in the experiment after stereotaxic cannulation of the VL left, SFO, MnPO and BLA. To study the effect of the blockade of central DOR and KOR on water and salt intake in rats were sodium depleted by the concomitant use of s.c. injections of furosemide and were kept in hypossodic diet, five days after surgery. In the sixth day, they received i.c.v. injections of a selective delta-opioid receptor antagonist (naltrindole) at the doses of 5, 10 and 20 nmol/2 μL and injections in the SFO, MnPO and BLA of a selective kappa-opioid receptor antagonist (norbinaltorphimine) at the doses of 0.5, 1.0 and 2.0 nmol/0.2 μL. The specific agonist for delta-opioid receptor deltorphin II (2.5, 5.0, 10 and 20 nmol / 2 !L) was injected i.c.v. in animals depleted pretreated with sodium naltrindole at the dose 20 nmol /2 !L . The kappa-opioid agonist, ICI199,441 (2 nmol /0.2 !L) was injected into the SFO, MnPO and BLA in animals depleted pretreated with sodium norbinaltorphimine 2.0 nmol / 0.2 !L. Bottles containing water or hypertonic saline solution were introduced into the cages 15 min after the central administration. To study the effect of the blockade of central DOR and KOR on water and salt intake in animals after central angiotensinergic stimulation, the animals received intracerebroventricular injections of naltrindole at the doses of 5, 10 and 20 nmol/2 μL 30 min before receiving central injections of angiotensin II at the dose of 10 ng/2 μL. In this case, bottles containing water or hypertonic saline solution were introduced into the cages immediately after the central administration of angiotensin II. Water and salt intake were recorded for the next 2 hours after the introduction of the bottles into the cages. To verify the specificity of action of opioid antagonists animals were submitted to the dessert test, open field and measurement of blood pressure. Data were analyzed by Two-Way ANOVA mixed model followed by Bonferroni as post-hoc test. Results: The groups of rats that received i.c.v. injections naltrindole after sodium depletion and central angiotensinergic activation, showed a statistically significant reduction in salt intake when compared to control animals group. Rats receiving norbialtorphimine injection in the SFO, MnPO and BLA after sodium depletion showed a statistically significant reduction in salt intake when compared to control animals group. The stimulation of delta-opioid receptors in animals full of sodium increased intake of hypertonic saline. Conclusions: The present data suggest that the delta-opioid receptors central, and the kappa-opioid receptors located in the SFO, MnPO and BLA appear to play a key role in the expression of the salt acquisition behavior in rats with sodium appetite.

Existe um grande interesse científico voltado para a busca das bases neuropsicofarmacológicas dos comportamentos que têm sido associados ao medo e ao pânico. Muitos estudos sugerem o teto mesencefálico (TM) como responsável pelo controle de respostas defensivas elaboradas durante situações de perigo iminente. A substância cinzenta periaquedutal (SCP), as camadas profundas do colículo superior (cpCS) e o colículo inferior (CI) têm sido considerados importantes estruturas na elaboração do medo inato e do comportamento de defesa, assim como na organização da antinocicepção induzida pelo medo inato. Contudo, muitos estudos têm implicado a via neoestriado-nigro-tectal no controle de respostas defensivas elaboradas no mesencéfalo dorsal, permeadas pela interação entre vias opioides e GABAérgicas. O presente trabalho tem por objetivo o estudo neurofarmacológico da anatomia conectiva funcional entre a substância negra (SN) e estruturas do TM, como a SCP e as cpCS, ligadas à organização do comportamento relacionado ao medo e à elaboração de processos antinociceptivos, avaliando-se o envolvimento da interação entre os sistemas opioide e canabinoide e a via nigro-tectal GABAérgica na modulação do comportamento de defesa e da antinocicepção induzida pelo medo evocado pela microinjeção de antagonista GABAérgico no continuum compreendido pela coluna dorsolateral da SCP e pelas cpCS. Com esse propósito, foram estudados os efeitos de microinjeções de agonistas e de antagonistas de receptores opioides ou canabinoides não-seletivos e seletivos na substância negra, parte reticulada (SNpr), sobre a antinocicepção que segue as diversas respostas comportamentais evocadas por microinjeções de bicuculina na SCPdl/cpCS de Rattus norvegicus (Rodentia, Muridae). O presente trabalho mostrou que a microinjeção do antagonista de receptores GABAA, bicuculina no TM, induziu comportamentos defensivos, elaborados concomitantemente com processos antinociceptivos, a interação entre vias opioides e aquelas mediadas por endocanaboinoides SNpr modula o comportamento de defesa organizado no mesencéfalo dorsal sem alteração na antinocicepção induzida pelo medo. O pré-tratamento na substância negra, parte reticulada com agonistas opioides e canabinoides aumentou os limiares nociceptivos e a microinjeção de antagonistas opioides e canabinoides, causou redução dos limiares nociceptivos. Esses dados sugerem uma interação entre vias opioides e endocanabinoides da SNpr, na modulação do comportamento que tem sido relacionado ao medo inato e a ataques de pânico, sendo recrutados receptores endocanaboinoides do tipo CB1 e CB2 do mesencéfalo ventral, ao lado de receptores opioides do tipo µ1 e na modulação de vias GABAérgicas de projeção nigro-tectal. / There is a great scientific interest in searching the neuropsychopharmacological bases of behavioural reactions associated to fear and panic. Many studies suggest that the mesencephalic tegmentum (MT) a mesencephalic division rich GABA, opiod and endocannabinoid containing neurons and/or receptors complex control on defensive responses during imminent danger conditions. It is also known that the periaquedutal grey matter (PAG), the deep layers of colliculus superior (cpCS) and the colliculus inferior (CI) are important structures related to innate fear and defence as well as to the organization of fear-induced antinociception. In addition neo-striatal-nigrotectal pathways are involved in the modutation of defensive responses elaborated in the dorsal midbrain, the central mesencephalic is rich in endocannabinoids. There are interactions between opioid and GABAergic pathways in these processes. The aim of this work is to study the role of the interaction between opioid anda endocannabinoide-mediated neurotransmission on the activity of GABAergic nigro-collicular pathways. Microinjections of non-selective ande selective agonist and antagonists of opioid an canabinoid receptor were performed in the SNpr before the GABAA receptor blockade in the dorsal midbrain (SCPdl/cpCS). The GABAA receptor blockade in the Mesencephalic tectum elicited vigorous defensive behaviour. This explosive escape behaviour was followed by significant antinociception. Microinjection of opioid and cannabinoid agonists in the SNpr increased the fear-induced antinociception and the treatment of the ventral midbrain with antagonists caused opposite effect .These data suggest a clear interaction between opioids and endocannabinoids pathways of the SNpr, in the modulation of the behaviour that has been related to the innate fear and the attacks of panic, being enlisted receiving endocannabinoids of type CB1 and CB2 of mesencephalic tegmentum, to the side of opioids receptors (-opioid receptor antagonist and µ1-opioid receptor antagonist) in the modulation of nigro-tectal GABAergic pathways.

O tramadol é um analgésico de ação central amplamente utilizado em répteis. Seu efeito ocorre por meio da ativação de receptores opioides e do bloqueio da recaptação de serotonina e norepinefrina. Este estudo objetivou avaliar a atividade antinociceptiva e a farmacocinética do tramadol em jabutis-piranga. Oito jabutis receberam quatro tratamentos, com intervalo mínimo de 21 dias: solução salina (grupo controle), tramadol nas doses de 5 mg/kg (TIM5) e 10 mg/kg (TIM10) por via intramuscular e 5 mg/kg (TIV5) por via intravenosa. Um estímulo nociceptivo térmico foi aplicado na superfície plantar dos animais e a avaliação da latência do reflexo de retirada do membro foi realizada nos tempos 0, 30 minutos, 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 24, 48, 72 e 96 horas. Foi realizada também colheita de sangue e análise do plasma por meio de cromatografia gasosa acoplada à espectrometria de massas triplo quadrupolo. A farmacocinética do tramadol foi calculada por abordagem não-compartimental. A concentração máxima para TIM5 e TIM 10 foi de 128,98 ± 59,46 ng/mL e 613,87 ± 524,26 ng/mL, respectivamente. A meia-vida de eliminação foi de 21,22 ± 8,74 horas para TIV5, 32,84 ± 6,41 horas para TIM5 e 22,5 ± 8,02 horas para TIM10. As doses de tramadol 10 mg/kg por via intramuscular e 5 mg/kg por via intravenosa não apresentaram alteração do tempo de latência para o reflexo de retirada do membro. O grupo que recebeu 5 mg/kg por via intramuscular apresentou diferença nos tempos 1 hora e 24 horas após a administração. O tramadol não apresentou efeito antinociceptivo consistente por via intramuscular nas doses de 5 e 10 mg/kg e por via intravenosa na dose de 5 mg/kg em jabutis-piranga. Independente da via de administração, o tramadol apresentou meia-vida de eliminação longa. / Tramadol is a centrally acting analgesic widely used in reptiles. It promotes activation of opioid receptors and inhibits serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake. This study aimed to evaluate the antinociceptive effects and pharmacokinetics of tramadol in red-footed tortoises. Eight animals were treated with four different protocols, with a 3-week washout period: saline IM (control group), tramadol 5 mg/kg IM (TIM5) and 10 mg/ kg IM (TIM10) and 5 mg/kg IV (TIV5). Infrared heat stimuli was applied to the plantar surface of the animals and thermal withdrawal latencies were measured at 0 and 30 minutes, 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 24, 48, 72 and 96 hours after drug treatment. Blood samples were obtained and plasma analysis performed by gas chromatography - triple quadrupole tandem mass spectrometry. Pharmacokinetics parameters were determined using non-compartimental equations. The average peak drug concentration was 128.98 ± 59.46 ng/mL (TIM5) and 613.87 ± 524.26 ng/mL (TIM10). The elimination half-life was 21.22 ± 8.74 hours (TIV5), 32.84 ± 6.41 hours (TIM5) and 22.5 ± 8.02 hours (TIM10). TIM10 and TIV5 showed no changes in thermal withdrawal latencies. TIM5 showed a significant increase in thermal withdrawal latencies at 1 hour and 24 hours after administration. Tramadol did not induce a consistent antinociceptive effect at 5 mg/kg and 10 mg/kg IM and ar 5 mg/kg IV in red-footed tortoises. Regardless of the route of administration, tramadol had a long half-life and plasma concentrations close to those reported in other species.