The aim and goal of this work has been to design and implement a voltage reference network for a 12-bit PSAADC, Parallell Successive Analog to Digital Converter. A chip containing the design has been sent away for fabrication. Because of the long processing time, no measurement data are presented. The main specifications for the voltage reference generator is to generate stable reference voltages with low noise and a good PSRR. Efforts has also been made to minimize the power consumption.

L'ocratoxina A (OTA) és un metabolit secundari tòxic produït essencialment per fongsdels gèneres Aspergillus i Penicillium, sota diverses condicions. La seva presència en elcos humà es deguda a la ingestió de petites quantitats provingudes d'un ampli ventalld'aliments, tant d'origen vegetal com animal. Després dels cereals, el vi és l'element en ladieta europea que més contribueix a l'ingesta d'OTA.L'OTA és una potent toxina que afecta principalment els ronyons, on pot provocar tantlesions agudes com cròniques. A part de la nefrotoxicitat, estudis toxicològics ambanimals han demostrat que també te propietats genotòxiques, carcinogèniques iimmunosupressives. A més, es sospita que és la causa d'una malaltia mortal per alshumans observada en l'Europa de l'Est i coneguda com la 'Nefropatia Endèmica delsBalcans', així com de la formació de tumors en el tracte urinari d'humans.Breument, els objectius del present treball són: (i) fer una valoració del nivell decontaminació per OTA en begudes espanyoles derivades del raïm i estudiar la possibleinfluència de diverses variables en el contingut d'OTA de vins i productes derivats; (ii)estudiar la micoflora de diverses vinyes espanyoles durant quatre anys consecutiusmitjançant mostrejos de camp, per tal d'aclarir on, quan i fins a quin punt existeix OTAen aquest país; (iii) identificar i estudiar l'efecte de diversos factors ecofisiològics i de lesseves interaccions en fongs potencialment productors d'OTA aïllats de raïm devinificació, per tal de trobar les condicions que puguin minimitzar o prevenir el seucreixement i la formació de la toxina. Es van dur a terme estudis addicionals perinvestigar, en primer lloc, els efectes in vitro de l'aplicació de fungicides en raïm, i totseguit, l'efecte del diferents tractaments fungicides en raïm al camp. També s'haaconseguit visualitzar la colonització i els primers estadis d'infecció d'Aspergilluscarbonarius en raïm, amb l'ajut de la microscopia de fluorescència làser confocal, epi- iestereomicroscopia, desprès de transformar aquest fong amb el gen de la proteïna defluorescència verda (gfp).S'ha vist que prop d'un 20 % dels vins espanyols analitzats contenien OTA, la majoria aconcentracions per sota dels límits establerts per la UE, i que els Aspergillus negres sónels responsables de la producció d'aquesta toxina en aquest país, sobretot Aspergilluscarbonarius. Malgrat el domini de les espècies de l'agregat A. niger en el raïm, i degut ala seva modesta capacitat de produir la toxina i a les baixes quantitats produïdes, la sevacontribució al problema de l'OTA és ínfima. Les espècies uniseriades foren descartadesen aquest aspecte, doncs no es va detectar toxina en cap de les soques aïllades.Els Aspergillus negres foren presents en el raïm des del quallat fins a la collita, en lamajoria de vinyes. Tanmateix, la seva incidència augmentà amb la maduració del raïm,doncs les altes temperatures i humitat afavoriren el desenvolupament i producció d'OTAd'aquests fongs. Es va demostrar l'habilitat d'A. carbonarius de créixer en l'interval 10-45 ºC i 0,88-0,995 d'activitat d'aigua (aw), amb l'òptim al voltant de 30 ºC i a les mésaltes aw. Les condicions de temperatura favorables per a la producció d'OTA foren mésrestringides, essent 20 ºC i les altes aw les condicions òptimes. També s'estudiaren altresfactors ecofisiològics com el país d'origen de les soques, les condicions de fotoperiode, l'alternança de temperatures, etc., doncs el coneixement dels factors que donen lloc a laproducció d'OTA pot ajudar a dissenyar estratègies per limitar la seva formació.En la part final d'aquesta tesi s'han suggerit diverses maneres de prevenir i controlar elsAspergillus negres i la seva micotoxina. Com que s'ha vist que la producció d'OTA perAspergillus negres és òptima poc temps desprès de la seva inoculació, la reducció deltemps de collita i transport al celler serà decisiva per reduir els nivells d'aquesta toxina.També s'ha de procurar minimitzar els danys en la pell del raïm, doncs s'ha vist que lesobertures fomenten la entrada del fong que es troba colonitzant la superfície,probablement afavorint la màxima producció d'OTA. L'execució d'altres mesurespreventives com el control de fongs patògens i d'insectes durant el creixement del raïm -es varen fer assaigs amb diversos fungicides in vitro i in vivo-, i d'altres bones pràctiquesagronòmiques, poden ajudar a reduir la contaminació per OTA del raïm.Com a conclusió general, s'ha vist que diversos factors poden ajudar a prevenir eldesenvolupament dels fongs ocratoxigènics, però és necessari aplicar un sistema demètodes combinats per tal de controlar el creixement i subseqüent producció d'OTA peraquests microorganismes. Les mesures preventives són sempre preferibles a les accionscorrectores, i junt amb un degut control de l'OTA en els derivats del raïm, asseguraranuna adequada protecció del consumidor. / La ocratoxina A (OTA) es un metabolito secundario tóxico producido esencialmente porhongos de los géneros Aspergillus y Penicillium, bajo diversas condiciones. Su presenciaen el cuerpo humano es debida a la ingestión de pequeñas cantidades provenidas de unamplio abanico de alimentos, tanto de origen vegetal como animal. Después de loscereales, el vino es el elemento en la dieta europea que más contribuye a la ingesta diariade OTA.La OTA es una potente toxina que afecta principalmente los riñones, dónde puedeprovocar tanto lesiones agudas como crónicas. A parte de la nefrotoxicidad, estudiostoxicológicos en animales han demostrado que también tiene propiedades genotóxicas,carcinogénicas e inmunosupresivas. Además, se sospecha que es la causa de unaenfermedad mortal para los humanos observada en la Europa del Este y conocida como la'Nefropatía Endémica de los Balcanes', así como de la formación de tumores en el tractourinario de humanos.Brevemente, los objetivos del presente trabajo son: (i) valorar el nivel de contaminaciónpor OTA en bebidas españolas derivadas de la uva y estudiar la posible influencia devarias variables en el contenido de OTA de vinos y productos derivados; (ii) estudiar lamicoflora de distintos viñedos españoles durante cuatro años consecutivos mediantemuestreos de campo, para esclarecer dónde, cuándo y hasta que punto existe OTA en estepaís; (iii) identificar y estudiar el efecto de varios factores ecofisiológicos y de susinteracciones en hongos potencialmente productores de OTA aislados de uva devinificación, para encontrar las condiciones que puedan minimizar o prevenir sucrecimiento y la formación de OTA. Se llevaron a cabo estudios adicionales parainvestigar en primer lugar los efectos in vitro de la aplicación de fungicidas en uva,seguido del efecto de diferentes tratamientos fungicidas en uva en el campo. También seha conseguido visualizar la colonización y los primeros estadios de infección deAspergillus carbonarius en uva, gracias a la microscopia de fluorescencia láser confocal,epi- y estereomicroscopia, después de transformar este hongo con el gen de la proteína defluorescencia verde (gfp).Se vio que aproximadamente un 20 % de los vinos españoles analizados contenían OTA,la mayoría a concentraciones por debajo de los límites establecidos por la UE, y que losAspergillus negros son los responsables de la producción de esta toxina en este país,sobretodo Aspergillus carbonarius. Pese al dominio de las especies del agregado A. nigeren la uva, y debido a su modesta capacidad de producir la toxina y a las bajas cantidadesproducidas, su contribución al problema de la OTA es ínfima. Las especies uniseriadasfueron descartadas en este aspecto, ya que no se detectó toxina en ninguna de les cepasaisladas.Se detectaron Aspergillus negros en la uva desde el cuajado hasta la cosecha, en lamayoría de viñedos. No obstante, su incidencia aumentó con la maduración de la uva,pues las altas temperaturas y humedad favorecieron el desarrollo y producción de OTApor estos hongos. Se demostró la capacidad de A. carbonarius de crecer en el intervalo10-45 ºC y 0,88-0,995 de actividad de agua (aw), con el óptimo alrededor de 30 ºC y a lasmás altas aw. Las condiciones de temperatura favorables para la producción de OTAfueron más restringidas, siendo 20 ºC y las altas aw las condiciones óptimas. También seestudiaron otros factores ecofisiológicos como el país de origen de las cepas, lascondiciones de fotoperiodo, la alternancia de temperaturas, etc., pues el conocimiento delos factores que dan lugar a la producción de OTA pueden ayudar a diseñar estrategiaspara limitar su formación.En la parte final de esta tesis se han sugerido varias maneras de prevenir y controlar losAspergillus negros y su micotoxina. Como que se ha visto que la producción de OTA porlos Aspergillus negros es óptima poco tiempo después de su inoculación, la reducción deltiempo de cosecha y transporte a la bodega será decisivo para reducir los niveles de estatoxina. También se ha de procurar minimizar los daños en la piel de la uva, pues se havisto que las aperturas fomentan la entrada del hongo que se encuentra colonizando lasuperficie, probablemente permitiendo la máxima producción de OTA. Laimplementación de otras medidas preventivas como el control de hongos patógenos y deinsectos durante el crecimiento de la uva -se ensayaron varios fungicidas in vitro e invivo-, y de otras buenas prácticas agronómicas, pueden ayudar a reducir la contaminaciónpor OTA de la uva.Como conclusión general, se ha visto que varios factores poden ayudar a prevenir eldesarrollo de los hongos ocratoxigénicos, pero es necesario aplicar un sistema de métodoscombinados para controlar el crecimiento y subsiguiente producción de OTA por estosmicroorganismos. Las medidas preventivas son siempre preferibles a las accionescorrectoras, y junto con un debido control de la OTA en los derivados de la uva,aseguraran una adecuada protección del consumidor. / Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a toxic secondary metabolite produced by moulds belongingessentially to the Aspergillus and Penicillium genera, under diverse conditions. Itspresence in the human body is due to the ingestion of small quantities present in a widerange of food commodities, both of vegetable and animal origin. Next to cereals, wine inthe European diet is the second major source of OTA.OTA is a potent toxin affecting mainly the kidneys, in which it can cause both acute andchronic lesions. Besides nephrotoxicity, toxicological studies on animals havedemonstrated that it has mainly, genotoxicity, carcinogenicity and immunosuppressiveproperties. Furthermore, it is suspected to be a possible cause of the fatal human diseaseknown as Balkan endemic nephropathy observed in South Eastern Europe, and of theurinary tract tumours in humans.Briefly, the objectives of the present project are: (i) to assess the level of OTAcontamination in Spanish grape-based beverages and to study the possible influence ofseveral variables in the OTA content of wines and derivatives; (ii) to survey themycoflora of several Spanish vineyards during four-year consecutive field samplings, inorder to clarify where, when and to what extent OTA occurs in this country; (iii) toidentify and study the effect of various ecophysiological factors and their interactions onpotential ochratoxigenic fungi isolated from wine grapes, in order to find out theconditions that might minimize or prevent their growth and OTA formation. Additionalstudies to investigate, first the impact of application of fungicides to grapes in vitro, andlater the effect of different fungicide treatments on grapes in the field, were carried out.Visualization of Aspergillus carbonarius grape colonization and early infection was alsoachieved with epi-, stereo- and confocal fluorescence microscopy, after thetransformation of this fungus with the reporter green fluorescent protein gene (gfp).It has been shown that nearly 20 % of the Spanish wines tested contained OTA, most ofthem at concentrations below the EU limits, and that black aspergilli are responsible forthe production of this toxin in this country, mainly A. carbonarius. Despite A. nigeraggregate species were dominant in grapes, because of their modest ability and lowamounts produced, their contribution to the OTA problem is rather small. Uniseriatespecies were discarded as a source of OTA in the surveyed regions, as no toxin wasdetected in any of the isolates.Black aspergilli were present on grapes from setting to harvest in most of the vineyards.However, their occurrence increased with grape maturity in the field, related to the factthat high temperature and humidity favoured black aspergilli development and OTAproduction. It was shown the growing ability of A. carbonarius in the range 10-45 ºC and0.88-0.995 of water activity (aw), with an optimum around 30 ºC and at the highest aw.Temperature conditions for OTA production were more restrictive, with optimumdetected at 20 ºC and at the highest water availability. Other ecophysiological factorssuch as the country of origin of the strains, photoperiod conditions, alternation oftemperatures, etc. were also studied, as understanding the factors leading to OTAsynthesis will enable strategies to limit its formation.Several effective ways for prevention and control of black aspergilli and their dangerousmycotoxin have been suggested in the final part of this thesis. As OTA production byblack aspergilli has been shown to occur optimally very early after inoculation,minimizing the harvesting and transport time to wine cellars might be crucial to reducethe toxin levels. Attention should also be paid in minimizing damages on grape skin, as itwas shown that openings trigger the entrance of the fungi colonizing the berry surface,probably enabling production of maximum amounts of OTA. The implementation ofother preventive measures such as controlling pathogenic fungi and insects during grapegrowing -some fungicides have been tested in vitro and in vivo-, and other goodagricultural practices, may help in the reduction of OTA contamination in grapes.As a general conclusion, several factors were found to help in the prevention ofochratoxigenic fungi development, but it may be necessary to apply a multiple barrierapproach to control the growth and subsequent OTA production of these microorganisms.Prevention measures are always preferable to corrective actions, and together with aproper control of OTA in grape-derivatives, should ensure the adequate protection of theconsumer.

Recently, with advances in CMOS process, the RF receiver which is integrated into the SOC chip can effectively reduce production costs. When designing the wireless receiver, one of the most important technologies is to design channel-selection filter. Typically, the design of the channel-selection filter in multi-standard high-frequency will take up a large chip area and higher power consumption. Therefore, in order to reduce the area and power consumption, this thesis designed a low-power OTA and low-pass filter. This thesis presents a multi-mode wireless communication application in the receiver channel selection filter. This filter is designed to use the fifth-order Butterworth low pass filter, the filter range can be used in Bluetooth, cdma2000, wideband CDMA, and IEEE 802.11a/b/g/n wireless LAN. Using floating transistor architecture in the input stage of OTA can effectively increase the THD performance. Using MOS transistors operating in triode region and combined with current multiplier can achieve the voltage-to-current conversion. Using the trans-linear loop can reach a wide tunable range, and the OTA operating in weak inversion region can significantly reduce the transconductance. Implementation is to use the TSMC 0.18£gm CMOS process. Simulation results show that the successful operation of this filter can be between 650 kHz ~ 22MHz frequency range. The filter may have compatibility in different wireless communication applications. 14.5mW to 17.5mW, respectively, is the smallest to the largest power consumption. The supply voltage is 1.2 volts.

High linearity transmitters and receivers should be used to efficiently utilize the available channel bandwidth. Power consumption is also a critical factor that determines the battery life of portable devices and wireless sensors. Three base-band and RF building blocks are designed with the focus of high linearity and low power consumption. An architectural attenuation-predistortion linearization scheme for a wide range of operational transconductance amplifiers (OTAs) is proposed and demonstrated with a transconductance-capacitor (Gm-C) filter. The linearization technique utilizes two matched OTAs to cancel output harmonics, creating a robust architecture. Compensation for process variations and frequency-dependent distortion based on Volterra series analysis is achieved by employing a delay equalization scheme with on-chip programmable resistors. The distortion-cancellation technique enables an IM3 improvement of up to 22dB compared to a commensurate OTA without linearization. A proof-of-concept lowpass filter with the linearized OTAs has a measured IM3 < -70dB and 54.5dB dynamic range over its 195MHz bandwidth. Design methodology for high efficiency class D power amplifier is presented. The high efficiency is achieved by using higher current harmonic to achieve zero voltage switching (ZVS) in class D power amplifier. The matching network is used as a part of the output filter to remove the high order harmonics. Optimum values for passive circuit elements and transistor sizes have been derived in order to achieve the highest possible efficiency. The proposed power amplifier achieves efficiency close to 60 percent at 400 MHz for -2dBm of output power. High efficiency class A power amplifier using dynamic biasing technique is presented. The power consumption of the power amplifier changes dynamically according to the output signal level. Effect of dynamic bias on class A power amplifier linearity is analyzed and the results were verified using simulations. The linearity of the dynamically biased amplifier is improved by adjusting the preamplifier gain to guarantee constant overall gain for different input signal levels.

Integrated high-Q continuous-time filters require adaptive tuning circuits that will correct the filter parameters such as center frequency and quality factor (Q). Three different automatic tuning techniques are introduced. In all of the proposed methods, frequencyand quality factor tuning loops are controlled digitally, providing stable tuning by activating only one loop at a given time. In addition, a direct relationship between passband gain and quality factor is not required, so the techniques can be applied to active LC filters as well as Gm-C filters. The digital-tuning method based on phase comparison was verified with 1% tuning accuracy at 5.5 MHz for Q of 20. It uses phase information for both Q and center-frequency tuning. The filter output phase is tuned to the known references, which are generated by a frequency synthesizer. The core tuning circuit consists of D flip-flops (DFF) and simple logic gates. DFFs are utilized to perform binary phase comparisons. The second method, high-order digital tuning based on phase comparison, is an extension of the previous technique to high-order analog filters without depending on the master-slave approach. Direct tuning of the overall filter response is achieved without separating individual biquad sections, eliminating switches and their parasitics. The tuning system was verified with a prototype 6th order bandpass filter at 19 MHz with 0.6 MHz bandwidth, which was fabricated in a conventional 0.5 [mu]m CMOS technology. Analysis of different practical limitations is also provided. Finally, the digital-tuning method based on magnitude comparison is proposed for second-order filters for higher frequency operations. It incorporates a frequency synthesizer to generate reference signals, an envelope detector and a switched comparator to compare output magnitudes at three reference frequencies. The theoretical analysis of the technique and the simulation results are provided.

In this thesis, we use the no-capacitor feed-forward (NCFF) compensation scheme which employs a feed-forward path to obtain high gain, high frequency. We use CMFB circuit to adjust the common-mode output voltages and the bias circuit. The CMFB circuit makes the output accurately to the reference voltage. The circuit was designed and fabricated TSMC 0.35 £gm CMOS process. The dc gain is around 90dB and the cut-off frequency is 1GHz. The supply voltage is ¡Ó1.25V. The output voltage is smaller than 10mV.

<p>The aim and goal of this work has been to design and implement a voltage reference network for a 12-bit PSAADC, Parallell Successive Analog to Digital Converter. A chip containing the design has been sent away for fabrication. Because of the long processing time, no measurement data are presented. The main specifications for the voltage reference generator is to generate stable reference voltages with low noise and a good PSRR. Efforts has also been made to minimize the power consumption.</p>

Analog to digital converters (ADCs) are the fundamental building blocks in communication systems. The need to design ADCs, which are area and/or power efficient, has been common. Various ADC architectures, constrained by resolution capabilities, can be used for this purpose. The cyclic algorithmic architecture of ADC with moderate number of bits comes out to be probably best choice for the minimum area implementation. In this thesis a cyclic ADC is designed using CMOS 65 nm technology. The ADC high-level model is thoroughly explored and its functional blocks are modelled to attain the best possible performance. In particular, the nonlinearities which affect the cyclic/algorithmic converter are discussed. This ADC has been designed for built-in-self-testing (BiST) on a chip. It is only functional during the testing phase, so power dissipation is not a constraint while designing it. As it is supposed to be integrated as an extra circuitry on a chip, its area really matters. The ADC is designed as 10-bit fully differential switch-capacitor (SC) circuit using 65nm CMOS process with 1.2V power supply. A two stage Operational Transconductance Amplifier (OTA) is used in this design to provide sufficient voltage gain. The first stage is a telescopic OTA whereas the second is a common source amplifier. The bottom plate sampling is used to minimize the charge injection effect which is present in the switches.

This dissertation presents the design and implementation of a 16-channel sinusoidal generator to stimulate microfluidic devices that use electrokinetic forces to manipulate particles. The generator has both, independent frequency and independent amplitude control for each channel. The stimulation system is based upon a CMOS application specific (ASIC) device developed using 0.35¦Ìm technology. Several generator techniques were compared based on frequency range, total harmonic distortion (THD), and on-chip area. The best alternative for the microfluidic applications is based in a triangle-to-sine converter and presents a frequency range of 8kHz to 21MHz, an output voltage range of 0V to 3.1VPP, and a maximum THD of 5.11%. The fabricated device, has a foot- print of 1560¦Ìm¡Á2030¦Ìm. The amplitude of the outputs is extended using an interface card, achieving voltages of 0V to 15VPP. The generator functionality was tested by performing an experimental set-up with particle trapping. The set-up consisted of a micromachined channel with embedded electrodes configured as two electrical ports located at different positions along the channel. By choosing specific amplitude and frequency values from the generator, different particles suspended in a fluid were simultaneously trapped at different ports. The multichannel stimulator presented here can be used in many microfluidic experiments and devices where particle trapping, separation and characterization is desired.

Due to rapid growth of home entertainment consumer market, video technology has been continuously pushed to deliver sharper pictures with higher resolution. This has brought about stringent requirements on the video analog front end, which often coupled with the low power and low voltage regulations had to deal with short channel effects of the deep submicron CMOS processes. This thesis presents the design of a fully differential programmable gain amplifier, as a subcircuit of a larger video digitizing IC designed at division of Electronic Systems. The switched capacitor architecture of the PGA does not only buffer the signal, but performs compensation for the sync-tip of analog video signal. The pseudo differential OTA eliminates tail current source and maintains high signal swing and has efficient common mode feedforward mechanism. When coupled with a similar stage provides inherent common moode feedback without using an additional SC-CMFB block. The PGA has been implemented using a 65 nm digital CMOS process. Expected difficulties in a 1.2 V OTA design make themselves evident in 65 nm, which is why cascaded OTA structures were inevitable for attaining gain specification of 60 dB. Nested Miller compensation with a pole shifting source follower, stabilizes the multipole system. The final circuit attains up to 200 MHz bandwidth and maintains high output swing of 0.85 V. High slew rate and good common mode and power supply rejection are observed. Noise requirements require careful design of input differential stage. Although output source follower stabilized the system, it reduces significant bandwidth and adds to second order non-linearity.