This is a small, mixed-methods study focusing principally on the learning experience element of Dörnyei’s L2 motivational self system and its effect on students’ ideal and ought-to selves. The specific purpose of this investigation was to explore the L2 classroom environment and explore any potential relationship to the ideal and ought-to selves of the students. The secondary element of this study was to discover whether this potential relationship could impact teacher-training and how. The study was conducted in two English (L2) classes at a Swedish upper-secondary school. A quantitative questionnaire was compiled using features from previous studies in this field and questions designed for this particular study. Each student filled out a questionnaire individually. The results of these were then analysed to establish a picture of the students’ general level of motivation, their possible selves, their classroom environment, and how they felt the former was affected by the latter. Qualitative contributions to the investigations were made through interviews with individual students and observation of lessons. The results indicated that, for the majority, four components of the classroom environment impacted significantly on the ideal and ought-to selves of the students, namely, the teacher, the group cohesiveness and orientedness and finally, the facilities. However, one factor did not demonstrate such a noteworthy influence: course material. The implications of these findings are that course material may not be as critical as originally thought in influencing student motivation. Moreover, teacher-training could, in future, include training on ideal and ought-to selves in order to maximize the positive effect of the classroom environment, as a whole, on individuals. This could be achieved by, for example, adapting the classroom facilities to suit different student needs, forming groups based on common interests and allowing for extra-curricular activities to enhance group-cohesiveness.

Theories of global justice are often criticised for being ineffective or unrealisable. The aim of this interdisciplinary thesis is to examine whether this motivational criticism holds regarding Singer’s Principle and Pogge’s theory of global egalitarian justice. First, I will show that the effectiveness argument is unconvincing: the underlying effectiveness criterion is either incoherent or not defined, and existing effectiveness predictions are empirically unsatisfactory. Second, I will analyse whether Singer’s interactional Principle satisfies the ‘ought implies can’ (OIC) criterion, which holds that obligations must be within the capacities of individuals. Having discussed the rationale and standard of the OIC criterion, I will show that the philosophical literature does not offer a convincing empirical justification of possibility evaluations. Drawing on psychological explanations of moral heroism, I will conclude that compliance with Singer’s Principle is possible for ordinary persons, i.e. that ‘every person is a hero in waiting’. Third, turning to the feasibility of Pogge’s theory of global egalitarian justice, I will discuss how the standard, time-frame, weight and rationale of the feasibility criterion should be defined. Based on psychological and sociological explanations about moral behaviour, social norms and identity, I will evaluate the empirical arguments advanced in the philosophical literature. In addition, I will consider how the long-term trends of globalisation are likely to influence the role of nationality, identity and global institutions. I will conclude that Pogge’s theory of egalitarian global justice is conditionally feasible, i.e. if we assume that domestic egalitarian justice is feasible. This implies that nationalism will not necessarily play a dominant role during the centuries to come. Overall, possibility and feasibility evaluations remain uncertain and partly subjective. I will thus argue that a burden of proof should be established to limit the negative effects of false evaluations.

The aim of this study is to understand whether Dörnyei’s (2005, 2009) motivational self system fits well with the language learning motivation of the participants in this Turkish university context The study has been carried out in a university in Western Turkey. In order to answer the research questions, the study has adopted a quantitative research design. The study has been conducted using a 109 item Likert scale questionnaire. The total number of participants in the study is 250. The study includes English prep class participants from the Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, the Department of Environmental Engineering, the Department of English Language Teaching, the Department of English Language and Literature and the Department of Biology. The results of the study show that the motivational self system partially fits well with the language learning motivation of the participants in this Turkish university context. As the results suggest, the model needs some modifications in order to fit within this context. The three main components of the motivational self system (ideal L2 self, ought to L2 self, and attitudes toward learning English) are seen to be related to the intended learning efforts of the participants, and are confirmed as distinct independent constructs that measure the different dimensions of L2 motivation. However, the two standpoints, own and other, overlap in terms of instrumentality promotion, instrumentality prevention and family influence. The contribution of attitudes toward learning English to the intended learning efforts of the participants is higher than the ideal L2 self, and the effect of the ought to L2 self is questionable. In addition to this, the study shows that family influence is related to the ought to L2 self, rather than the ideal L2 self, but, contrary to Dörnyei’s (2005, 2009) model, milieu does not have any significant relationship with the ought to L2 self. The results also show that instrumentality has two foci: instrumentality promotion is related to the ideal L2 self, and instrumentality prevention is related to the ought to L2 self. Furthermore, imagination is found to be related to the ideal L2 self, as shown in the motivational self system. The results also suggest that the international community is important instrumentally for the imagined selves of the participants. This result supports the discussion that the international position of English attracts the participants’ future selves as suggested in the L2MSS. Key words: motivational self system; ideal L2 self; ought to L2 self; attitudes toward learning English; instrumentality promotion; instrumentality prevention.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / The attendant work advances as a central goal the analysis of the problem of logical principles applicability to the normative ambit, according to the conceptions of the Austrian philosopher of Law, Hans Kelsen. This problem doesn t receive the same approach by the author along his several works. Thus, the problem will be in this work inquired by distinguishing three phases in its treatment by Kelsen. The arguments that correspond to the three phases lie, respectively, in the works General Theory of Law and State (1945), the second edition of the Pure Theory of Law (1960) and the General Theory of Norms (1979), the main study objects in this work. Each chapter will hence approach the treatment of one of these phases, in order to, along them, analyse not only the main theses and concepts of Kelsen about the relation between Logic and Law, but also the motivations and purposes that leaded the author to leave old theses in behalf of new ones. It s intended that such approach will be able to elucidate the already traditional problem about the possibility of a relation between the principles of Logic mainly the principle of non-contradiction and the rule of inference and Moral and Legal norms. In order to achieve that, through the presentation and analysis of each one of Kelsen s postures about the problem, is searched a systematic regard of the different arguments given for its treatment, which represent a growing refuse of Kelsen for the logical elements insertion in the normative field. Nevertheless, until end up refusing this application, Kelsen s inquiry crosses over less extreme approaches, in which are noticed the limitations of some concepts and theses inside his theory, that will be, some of them, modified or abandoned, in behalf of one ultimate approach, severely commited to the positivists and purists ideals maintained by the author. / O presente trabalho tem por objetivo analisar o problema da aplicabilidade de princípios lógicos ao âmbito normativo segundo a concepção do jusfilósofo austríaco Hans Kelsen. Este problema não é abordado da mesma forma pelo autor em suas diversas obras. Portanto, o problema será investigado nesta dissertação distinguindo-se três fases do seu tratamento por Kelsen. Os argumentos que correspondem às três fases encontram-se, respectivamente, nas obras Teoria Geral do Direito e do Estado (1945), na segunda edição da Teoria Pura do Direito (1960) e na Teoria Geral das Normas (1979), os principais objetos de estudo deste trabalho. Cada um dos capítulos da dissertação irá deter-se, deste modo, ao tratamento de uma destas fases, de modo que, ao longo delas, serão analisados não somente as teses e conceitos kelsenianos sobre a relação da Lógica com o Direito, mas também as motivações e propósitos que levaram o autor a abandonar teses antigas em favor de novas teses. Pretende-se que tal abordagem elucide o já tradicional problema da possibilidade de relação entre os princípios da Lógica especialmente o princípio da não-contradição e a regra de inferência às normas do Direito e da Moral. Para isso, através da presente apresentação e análise de cada uma das posições de Kelsen, busca-se uma sistematização dos diferentes argumentos fornecidos para o seu tratamento, que representam uma crescente recusa pela inserção de elementos da Lógica no plano normativo. No entanto, até culminar em uma recusa final, a investigação de Kelsen passa por posições menos extremadas, nas quais se notam as limitações de certos conceitos e teses dentro de sua Teoria, que serão, alguns, modificados ou abandonados, em favor de uma última abordagem rigidamente comprometida com os ideais positivistas e puristas sustentados pelo autor.

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Text in English / Summary: This work aims at establishing Jung's importance as a Nietzsche commentator. Although Jung's work is generally unacknowledged by the mainstream of Nietzsche scholarship, a number of philosophers have joined him in recognizing the relevance of Iranian religious lore to Nietzsche; the visionary nature of Nietzsche's experiences of Zarathustra; and the link between these experiences and his criticism of ethics. Jung sees Nietzsche as something of a kindred spirit, "and refers to that philosopher again and again throughout his writings. In his seminar on Nietzsche's Also sprach Zarathustra, Jung analyzes that work much as he would a patient's dream. While this approach allows Jung to project his own views onto Nietzsche, it also succeeds in restoring essential aspects of Nietzsche's thought which other, less foolhardy commentators fail to capture. Nietzsche and Jung both speak of going "beyond good and evil" (jenseits von Gut und Bose) as an integral part of their respective conceptions of human fulfillment. The notion that we ought to try to transcend the distinction between good and evil, rather than obstinately cling to the good, potentially constitutes an immense, fundamental challenge to our ordinary beliefs about ethics. At the same time, Jung's elaboration of this into a more general form of nonduality suggests a solution to that most basic problem of ethics--which Nietzsche raised most forcefully--namely that of how ethical standards might be justified without falling prey to such basic obstacles as the "is/ought" problem. / Philosophy, Practical & Systematic Theology / D.Litt. et Phil. (Philosophy)

Emotional brand attachment has emerged as an important marketing concept that can strengthen a brand's performance. One way to create emotional bonds with consumers is to match the brand's personality with the consumer's self-concept (i.e. self-congruence). Nonetheless, research on brand attachment has a strong westernized focus leaving a vast majority of the world's population outside the frame of research, which limits our understanding of how consumers perception of self form emotional attachments to brands across cultures. We address this issue by developing the novel construct of ought self-congruence and test a conceptual model in two large scale studies including 810 respondents from Sweden and South Korea. The results showed similarities as well as unique cultural differences. Brand personalities in line with a consumer's actual self-view yield the strongest positive impact on emotional brand attachment in both cultures. However, an ideal self-congruent brand only showed a positive impact on Swedish consumers or when the self is sculpt independently from others. In contrast, South Koreans formed attachments to global brands that were congruent with an ought self-perception. A consumer's regulatory focus provides a theoretical explanation to the mixed results. Avenues for further research and managerial implications are also proposed.

本文試圖藉由齊美爾（Georg Simmel）的社會學觀點指出現代個體的困境，並且參照齊美爾的美學觀點作為個體的出路。假若在大都會生活的社會互動中所面臨的冷漠和物化是個體能動性的宿命，那麼社會衝突和分化的機制就是個體能動性的機會。本文首先藉由「應然」的倫理學前提理解齊美爾個體生命的能動特性。然後，本文將此倫理置入理性社會與感性藝術的雙元環境中考察應然個體的可能。最後，本文將要以十九世紀印象派畫作為理論闡釋的實踐案例，意即從印象派的繪畫風格中經驗證成並且反身思考個體性的概念。 本論文的理論概念和經驗案例一致指向十九世紀作為我們討論的關鍵時期。這一方面是由於當時的西歐社會在政治面經歷了激烈的轉變（例如法國大革命促進了自由與平等的價值），此外經濟面也有了重大的改變（比如工業革命帶動了科技和藝術的發明）。但是，若我們僅是把政治經濟的理性史作為研究焦點，則將會陷入階級、國族或是群眾等集體現實的客觀陷阱，更別說已預設了革命的世俗神學。相對而言，藝術作品經常以非人事物的潛在形象當作客體追求，因而有別於政治事件總是以人群的顯著意義激化主體思辨。再者，此時社會的經濟面已明顯地趨向理性化發展，也使得人們倍感個體性喪失的威脅。因而，深入考察藝術創作與工業技術的奮戰或許反而較有助於發現個體性的潛能。 工業發展造就了攝影技術的產生，並使得傳統的繪畫藝術遭受挑戰。在擬真程度上，繪畫雖然永遠比不上攝影精準，然而印象派注重光與影的效果卻為藝術創作找到了新路。畫作上感性的自我表露反而得以創造攝影技術難以觸及的生命層次。莫內（Claude Monet）的自然紀錄與與卡莎特（Mary Stevenson Cassatt）的社會觀察儼然都是印象派藝術家以獨特的藝術作品具體實踐個體性的豐碩成果。 / This thesis attempts to illustrate the predicament of the modern individual from the sociological viewpoint of Georg Simmel. We assume that the aesthetical viewpoint of Georg Simmel could be the way out for the individual. Given the indifference and objectification of social interaction in the metropolis is the fate of individual agency, the mechanism of social conflict and differentiation is the opportunity for individual agency. This study begins with Georg Simmel’s theory that we utilize the ethics of ‘sollen’ (ought) to interpret the agency of the individual’s life. After depicting the outline of the Georg Simmel’s ethics, we place the theory into the dual condition set by rational society and affective art to explore the possibility of the ‘sollen’ individual. In the final part, we take some paintings from the 19th century impressionism as practical examples of explication. We verify and think reflexively on the concept of individuality by means of the painting style of impressionism. The theoretical concepts as well as the empirical examples of this thesis consistently point to the crucial period of the 19th century as our primal object for discussion. On the one hand, European society at the time had undergone radical changes on the political front (such as French Revolution which exalted the values of freedom and equality). In addition, there was great structural shifts on the economic front (such as Industrial Revolution which drove the inventions of technology and art). Nevertheless, if we take only the rational history of political economy as the focus of research, we would fall into a trap of objectivity interwoven in the collective realities of the classes, nations, or masses, not to mention the presumption of a secular theology of the Revolution. Comparatively speaking, the potential image of inhuman things is frequently the objective pursuit of the artwork. Therefore, it is different from the political state of affairs which always inspires and intensifies subjective speculation with those obvious meanings inherent in the human collectivity. Moreover, the economic aspect of society has now apparently developed towards rationalization, which makes people feel the doubling threat of individual deprivation. In light of these concerns, we look elsewhere into the creativity of the artwork and the struggle of industrial technique in order to discover the potentials of individuality. The development of industry brought forward the photographic apparatus, which posed in turn a challenge to the traditional art of painting. On the scale of verisimilitude, photography will always be much more accurate than painting. However, the fact that impressionism pays attention to the effects of light and shadow on the canvases opens a new way for artistic creation. The affective disclosure of individual selves represented by the impressionist style of painting can create a vital dimension that beyond the photographic technique. Claude Monet’s documentations of nature and Mary Stevenson Cassatt’s observations of society are both fruitful results from which these impressionist artists practice their concrete individualities through their singular artworks.

Le rapport qu’entretient Hegel à l’égard de la philosophie kantienne est ambivalent. Il la louange à maintes occasions alors qu’il la critique sévèrement à d’autres. La philosophie morale de Kant n’y fait pas exception. Hegel est réputé pour l’avoir critiquée avec véhémence. Cette critique, désormais célèbre, est connue sous le nom de critique du devoir-être ou Sollenkritik. Nous porterions préjudice à la richesse de la doctrine hégélienne si nous nous bornions à voir en cette critique un rejet catégorique de toutes les thèses avancées par Kant. Notre travail se donne une double mission. Dans un premier temps, nous montrerons quels sont les divers points litigieux entre la moralité kantienne et la doctrine hégélienne. Dans un second temps, nous nous efforcerons d’expliquer en quoi la moralité participe de la vérité que nous révèle Hegel. / The relation that Hegel maintains towards the Kantian philosophy is ambivalent. He praises it on several occasions while he criticizes it on others. The moral philosophy of Kant does not make an exception to it. Hegel is renowned for having criticized it vehemently. This criticism, now famous, is known under the name of Sollenkritik. We would harm the richness of the Hegelian doctrine if we were to limit ourselves to see this criticism as a rejection of the theories put forward by Kant. Our work will aim a double mission. As a first step, we will demonstrate what are the different litigious points between the Kantian morality and the Hegelian doctrine. As a second step, we will try to explain how morality is included in the truth that Hegel is revealing us.

In this thesis I analyze the evolutionary ethics and propose a new perspective that develops on the notion of altruism. The view of evolutionary ethics, especially the sociobiological account, has some problems. The most important philosophical problem is the &ldquo / is-ought&rdquo / problem which refers to the question as to whether moral propositions can be inferred from factual statements. In order to overcome this problem I suggest a different reading of the notion of altruism namely &ldquo / altruistic behavior practice&rdquo / that refers to norms, habits and repeated actions that provide the sustainability of society. The notion of altruistic behavior practice is presented and evaluated with the help of Alasdair MacIntyre&rsquo / s and John Dewey&rsquo / s moral philosophy. The moral views of these two philosophers are based on human practices and habitual formations in society. In this respect, evolutionary ethics and the notion of altruism are re-established on the basis of human practices and habitual modes of socialization.