Ce travail a été consacré à l'étude des sous-produits de désinfection formés lors de la chloration des eaux de piscine publiques. En effet, parallèlement à son action désinfectante, le chlore réagit sur les composés organiques et minéraux introduits dans l'eau des bassins par les baigneurs (urine, sueur, ...) pour former des sous-produits indésirables (chloramines et composés organohalogénés).Des analyses d'urée, principal composé précurseur de chloramines inorganiques, ont été effectuées dans une cinquantaine d'eaux de piscine. Les concentrations mesurées ont été comprises entre 0,14 et 3,67 mg/L (valeur moyenne : 1,08 mg/L ; écart-type : 0,70 mg/L). L'étude de la réactivité du chlore sur l'urée (cinétique et consommation de chlore) effectuée sous différentes conditions expérimentales a mis en évidence une très grande stabilité de l'urée en présence de chlore libre dans les eaux de piscines.Les analyses de sous-produits de chloration ont démontré que l'hydrate de chloral représente l'un des sous-produits de chloration majoritaire avec les acides dichloroacétique et trichloroacétique. Cette étude a aussi permis de déterminer la constante cinétique d'hydrolyse de l'hydrate de chloral dans l'eau, l'influence du pH et de la température sur la vitesse d'hydrolyse, ainsi que les potentiels de formation d'hydrate de chloral à partir de quelques constituants de l'urine.La dernière partie de ce travail a porté sur l'étude de la réactivité de l'ozone sur le chlore et sur des sous-produits de chloration ainsi que sur l'étude de l'incidence d'une préozonation des eaux de piscines (en absence et en présence de chlore libre) sur la formation des sous-produits organohalogénés lors d'une post-chloration. / The aim of this work was to study of the formation of disinfection by-products during the chlorination of public swimming pools water. In parallel to its disinfecting action, chlorine reacts with organic and inorganic compounds introduced into the swimming pool water by bathers (urine, sweat, ...) to form undesirable by-products (chloramines and organohalogenated matters).A statistical study of the presence of urea, the major component of urine and sweat, and the main precursor compound of inorganic chloramines, in public swimming poolwater has been made. Measured concentrations were between 0.14 and 3.67 mg/L (mean value: 1.08 mg/L, s.d: 0.70 mg/L). The study of the reactivity of chlorine with urea (kinetic and chlorine consumption) made under different experimental conditions, showed a very high stability of urea in the presence of free chlorine in the pools water.Analysis of chlorination by-products showed that chloral hydrate, with the dichloro and the trichloroacetic acids, is one of the major chlorination by-products found. This study also determined the kinetic rate constant of hydrolysis of chloral hydrate in water, the influence of the pH and the temperature on the rate of hydrolysis and the potential of chloral hydrate formation from some constituents of the urine.The last part of this work was focused on the study of the reactivity of ozone on chlorine and some disinfection by-products, as well as the study of the impact of preozonation of swimming pools water (in absence and presence of free chlorine) on the formation of organohalogenated by-products during a post-chlorination.

AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is a key regulator of energy homeostasis in cells. It has been implicated as a therapeutic target for various metabolic diseases like type II diabetes and obesity. However, its role in cancer is context-dependent and therefore warrants further studies to explore its possible use as a therapeutic target. AMPK can either promote or retard the growth of cancer cells depending on other cues and stresses in the milieu of the cancer cells. This study aims to understand AMPK signalling in response to extracellular cues of matrix deprivation and matrix stiffness that are important determinants of metastasis. 1) Calcium-Oxidant Signalling Network Regulates AMPK Activation upon Matrix Deprivation. Recent work from our lab, as well as others, has identified a novel role for the cellular energy sensor AMP-activated protein kinase in epithelial cancer cell survival under matrix deprivation. However, the molecular mechanisms that activate AMPK upon matrix-detachment remain unexplored. In this study, we show that AMPK activation is a rapid and sustained phenomenon upon matrix deprivation, while re-attachment to the matrix leads to its dephosphorylating and inactivation. Since matrix-detachment leads to loss of integrin signalling, we investigate whether integrin signalling negatively regulates AMPK activation. However, modulation of FAK or Src, the major downstream components of integrin signalling, fails to cause a corresponding change in AMPK signalling. Further investigations reveal that the upstream AMPK kinases, LKB1 and CaMKKβ, contribute to AMPK activation upon detachment. Additionally, we show LKB1 phosphorylation and cytosolic translocation upon matrix deprivation, which might also contribute to AMPK activation. In LKB1-deficient cells, we find AMPK activation to be predominantly dependent on Caskβ. We observe no change in ATP levels under detached conditions at early time points suggesting that rapid AMPK activation upon detachment is not triggered by energy stress. We demonstrate that matrix deprivation leads to a spike in intracellular calcium as well as oxidant signalling and both these intracellular messengers contribute to rapid AMPK activation upon detachment. We further show that ER calcium release induced store-operated calcium entry (SOCE) contributes to intracellular calcium increase, leading to ROS production, and AMPK activation. We additionally show that the LKB1/CaMKK-AMPK axis and intracellular calcium levels play a critical role in anchorage-independent cancer sphere formation. We find a significant increase in LKB1 as well as pACC levels in breast tumour tissues in comparison to normal tissues. Further, we observe a significant correlation between LKB1 and pACC levels in breast tumour tissues suggesting that LKB1-AMPK signaling pathway is active in vivo in breast cancers. Thus, the Ca2+/ROS triggered LKB1/CaMKK-AMPK signalling cascade may provide a quick, adaptable switch to promote survival of metastasising cancer cells. 2) Extracellular Matrix Stiffness Regulates Stemless through AMPK. Cancer cells experience changes in extracellular matrix stiffness during cancer progression. However, the signalling pathways utilised in sensing matrix stiffness are poorly understood. In this study, we identify AMPK pathway as a possible mechanosensory pathway in response to matrix stiffness. AMPK activity, as measured by downstream target phosphorylation, is found to be higher in soft matrix conditions. We additionally show that compared to stiff matrices, soft matrices increase stemless properties, as evidenced by the increased expression of stemless markers, which is dependent on AMPK activity. Thus, we elucidate a novel mechanotransduction pathway triggered by matrix stiffness that contributes to stemness of cancer cells by regulating AMPK activity. Taken together, our study identifies a novel calcium-oxidant signaling network in the rapid modulation of AMPK signaling in the context of matrix detachment. This pathway is especially relevant in the context of metastasising cancer cells that may not face energy stress in the blood stream but are matrix-deprived. Inhibition of AMPK might compromise the viability of these circulating cells thereby reducing the metastatic spread of cancer. Our study further suggests that varying stiffnesses experienced by cancer cells can modulate AMPK activity and this, in turn, regulates stem-like properties. Thus our study provides novel insights into various extracellular cues that regulate this kinase and contribute to cell survival and metastasis. This knowledge can be utilised in the stage-specific use of AMPK inhibitors in the treatment of breast cancer patients.

Student Number: 9503012G Master of Science. School of Geography, Archaeology and Environmental Studies / A brown haze which builds-up over Cape Town under calm and cold weather conditions causes public concern. The brown haze is thought to be due to the gaseous and particulate emissions from the city, industries, traffic and townships in the Cape Town region. Volatile organic carbon (VOCs) compounds are an important component of the haze layer particularly because of their reactivity. VOCs play an important role in the carbon budget and radiation balance, regional oxidant balance, and in the distribution of ozone and other reactive gases, both at the regional and global scale. In this study the variation in ambient VOC concentrations during brown and non-brown haze days over Cape Town during July and August 2003 were characterised. Ambient air samples were collected in evacuated stainless steel canistes from the South African Weather Service (SAWS) research aircraft (Aerocommander, ZS-JRB) and later analysed by gas chromotography equipped with a flame ionisation detector (GC-FID). Benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylene (BTEX) were the specific VOCs targeted for this study. Comparable meteorology data was also collected to determine the effects of wind field and atmospheric stability on BTEX concentrations.

Целью выпускной квалификационной работы является разработка нового потенциометрического подхода к исследованию антирадикальных свойств соединений с учетом кинетических особенностей взаимодействия антиоксидантов с пероксильными радикалами. В работе рассмотрены причины возникновения окислительного стресса, система антиоксидантной защиты и существующие методы исследования антиоксидантных/антирадикальных свойств соединений. Разработан новый потенциометрический подход к исследованию антирадикальных свойств соединений, учитывающий кинетические особенности реакции антиоксидантов с генерируемыми пероксильными радикалами. Предложенным способом оценена константа взаимодействия с пероксильными радикалами (k3) растворов индивидуальных антиоксидантов «быстрого» и «медленного» действия. Предложен новый потенциометрический способ исследования антирадикальных свойств соединений, заключающийся в расчете площади над кривой кинетической зависимости Exp(∆E). Предложенным способом рассчитаны площади SАРЕ для «быстрых» и «медленных» антиоксидантов, в том числе с особенностью кинетики превращения. / The aim of the final qualifying work is to develop a new potentiometric approach to the study of the antiradical properties of compounds, taking into account the kinetic features of the interaction of antioxidants with peroxyl radicals. The paper considers the causes of oxidative stress, the system of antioxidant protection and existing methods for studying the antioxidant/antiradical properties of compounds. A new potentiometric approach to the study of the antiradical properties of compounds has been developed, taking into account the kinetic features of the reaction of antioxidants with generated peroxyl radicals. The proposed method estimates the constant of interaction with peroxyl radicals (k3) of solutions of individual antioxidants of "fast" and "slow" action. A new potentiometric method for studying the antiradical properties of compounds is proposed, which consists in calculating the area above the kinetic dependence curve Exp(∆E). By the proposed method, the SARE areas for "fast" and "slow" antioxidants are calculated, including those with a feature of the kinetics of transformation.

L’athérosclérose est une maladie vasculaire inflammatoire chronique qui se développe progressivement au cours de la vie. Les mécanismes impliqués sont complexes et la recherche de nouveaux candidats impliqués dans l'athérogénèse est toujours d'actualité. L’Angiopoietine-like 2 (Angptl2) est une protéine relativement peu connue, aux propriétés pro-angiogéniques et pro-inflammatoires, qui appartient par homologie à la grande famille des angiopoietines, mais dont le récepteur n'est pas encore clairement identifié. Les situations pathologiques dans lesquelles l’Angptl2 jouerait un rôle crucial sont diverses, mais sa contribution moléculaire dans le développement de l’athérosclérose est inconnue. Par differential display, nous avons initialement identifié l'Angptl2 comme étant surexprimée dans des cellules endothéliales sénescentes, isolées et cultivées à partir d'artères mammaires internes de patients athérosclérotiques ayant subi un pontage coronarien. Cette découverte a été la à base de mon projet, et mes objectifs ont été 1) de déterminer l'implication de l’Angptl2 vasculaire en présence de facteurs de risques tels que le tabagisme et la dyslipidémie, 2) de produire et de purifier une protéine recombinante fonctionnelle de l’Angptl2 afin d'identifier in vitro de nouvelles propriétés cellulaires de l'Angptl2 et 3) d'étudier in vivo le potentiel pro-athérogénique de l'Angptl2 recombinante dans un modèle murin de dyslipidémie sévère. Nous avons montré que l’Angptl2 est sécrétée préférentiellement dans des conditions pro-oxydantes et pro-inflammatoires, avec une augmentation de son expression endothéliale de l’ordre de 6 fois chez des patients coronariens fumeurs atteints de maladie pulmonaire obstructive chronique. Suite à ces résultats, nous avons émis l’hypothèse que l’Angptl2, en plus de ses fonctions pro-inflammatoires connues, possède des propriétés pro-oxydantes. Nous avons démontré que l’Angptl2 recombinante stimule en effet la production de radicaux libres dans des HUVEC en culture, via l’inhibition partielle de la voie cytoprotectrice antioxydante Nrf2/HO-1 et potentiellement via l'activation de kinase intracellulaire de type p38. A l'aide de souris dyslipidémiques LDLr-/-; hApoB-100+/+, nous avons démontré que le niveau d’Angptl2 plasmatique, vasculaire et dans les plaques athéromateuses, augmente parallèlement avec le développement de l’athérosclérose. De plus, une stimulation avec l’Angptl2 recombinante engendre chez ces souris une réponse inflammatoire évaluée par l’expression endothéliale de cytokines et de molécules d'adhésion et par l’infiltration de leucocytes sur l’endothélium vasculaire. Finalement, l’administration intraveineuse de la protéine recombinante d’Angptl2 pendant quatre semaines à des souris LDLr-/-; hApoB-100+/+ augmente de 10 fois l'expansion de la plaque athérosclérotique et double leur taux de cholestérol circulant. Nous avons aussi montré que chez des patients athérosclérotiques, l'Angptl2 plasmatique est 6 fois plus élevée que chez des sujets sains du même âge. Nos études semblent donc définir l’Angptl2 comme un facteur contribuant directement au développement de l'athérosclérose en favorisant la sénescence, l’inflammation et l’oxydation des cellules endothéliales. Ces propriétés pourraient globalement définir l'Angptl2, non seulement comme un nouveau biomarqueur circulant de l’athérosclérose, mais également comme l'un de ses promoteurs. / Atherosclerosis is a chronic vascular inflammatory disease that develops gradually during life. While the control mechanisms of this disease are complex and variable, research continues to identify new protein candidates involved in atherogenesis. Angiopoietin-like2 (Angptl2) is a relatively unknown protein, recently shown to display angiogenic and pro-inflammatory properties. Based upon structural homology, Angptl2 is a member of the angiopoietin family; however, the Angptl2 receptor has not yet been clearly identified. The reported pathological situations in which Angptl2 may play a crucial role are multiple, but its molecular contribution in the development of atherosclerosis remains unknown. By differential display, we initially identified Angptl2 as being overexpressed in senescent endothelial cells, isolated and cultivated from internal mammary arteries of atherosclerotic patients undergoing coronary bypass. This observation was at the basis of my project. My specific objectives were 1) to determine the abundance of vascular Angptl2 in the presence of risk factors such as smoking and dyslipidemia, 2) to produce and purify a functional recombinant human Angptl2 protein in order to examine its effects on cellular function in vitro, and 3) to study the pro-atherogenic potential of Angptl2 in vivo using a mouse model of severe dyslipidemia. We showed that Angptl2 is preferentially secreted under pro-oxidant and pro-inflammatory conditions, with a 6-fold increase in endothelial Angptl2 expression in smoker coronary patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Based on these results, we hypothesized that, in addition to its known pro-inflammatory functions, Angptl2 has pro-oxidant properties. Accordingly, we demonstrated that recombinant Angptl2 stimulates the production of free radicals by HUVEC, an action exerted, at least in part, by the inhibition of the cytoprotective antioxidant pathway, Nrf2/HO-1, and potentially via the activation of the intracellular p38 MAPK pathway. In dyslipidemic LDLr-/-; hApoB-100+/+ mice, we showed that the levels of endogenous Angptl2 in plasma, vascular tissue and atherosclerotic lesions increase in parallel with the development of atherosclerosis. In addition, stimulation with recombinant Angptl2 induces an inflammatory response, as assessed by the expression of cytokines and adhesion molecules and by infiltration of leukocytes into the vascular endothelium. Furthermore, intravenous infusion of purified recombinant Angptl2 for four weeks promoted a 10-fold increase in the formation of atherosclerotic plaques in LDLr-/-; hApoB-100+/+ mice and doubled their circulating cholesterol levels. Finally, we also demonstrated that plasma Angptl2 is 6-fold higher in atherosclerotic patients than in age-matched healthy subjects. These studies therefore strongly suggest that Angptl2 could directly contribute to the development of atherosclerosis by promoting senescence, inflammation and oxidation in endothelial cells. Such properties indicate that Angptl2 may be both a new biomarker of atherosclerosis, as well as one of its contributors.

L’athérosclérose est une maladie vasculaire inflammatoire chronique qui se développe progressivement au cours de la vie. Les mécanismes impliqués sont complexes et la recherche de nouveaux candidats impliqués dans l'athérogénèse est toujours d'actualité. L’Angiopoietine-like 2 (Angptl2) est une protéine relativement peu connue, aux propriétés pro-angiogéniques et pro-inflammatoires, qui appartient par homologie à la grande famille des angiopoietines, mais dont le récepteur n'est pas encore clairement identifié. Les situations pathologiques dans lesquelles l’Angptl2 jouerait un rôle crucial sont diverses, mais sa contribution moléculaire dans le développement de l’athérosclérose est inconnue. Par differential display, nous avons initialement identifié l'Angptl2 comme étant surexprimée dans des cellules endothéliales sénescentes, isolées et cultivées à partir d'artères mammaires internes de patients athérosclérotiques ayant subi un pontage coronarien. Cette découverte a été la à base de mon projet, et mes objectifs ont été 1) de déterminer l'implication de l’Angptl2 vasculaire en présence de facteurs de risques tels que le tabagisme et la dyslipidémie, 2) de produire et de purifier une protéine recombinante fonctionnelle de l’Angptl2 afin d'identifier in vitro de nouvelles propriétés cellulaires de l'Angptl2 et 3) d'étudier in vivo le potentiel pro-athérogénique de l'Angptl2 recombinante dans un modèle murin de dyslipidémie sévère. Nous avons montré que l’Angptl2 est sécrétée préférentiellement dans des conditions pro-oxydantes et pro-inflammatoires, avec une augmentation de son expression endothéliale de l’ordre de 6 fois chez des patients coronariens fumeurs atteints de maladie pulmonaire obstructive chronique. Suite à ces résultats, nous avons émis l’hypothèse que l’Angptl2, en plus de ses fonctions pro-inflammatoires connues, possède des propriétés pro-oxydantes. Nous avons démontré que l’Angptl2 recombinante stimule en effet la production de radicaux libres dans des HUVEC en culture, via l’inhibition partielle de la voie cytoprotectrice antioxydante Nrf2/HO-1 et potentiellement via l'activation de kinase intracellulaire de type p38. A l'aide de souris dyslipidémiques LDLr-/-; hApoB-100+/+, nous avons démontré que le niveau d’Angptl2 plasmatique, vasculaire et dans les plaques athéromateuses, augmente parallèlement avec le développement de l’athérosclérose. De plus, une stimulation avec l’Angptl2 recombinante engendre chez ces souris une réponse inflammatoire évaluée par l’expression endothéliale de cytokines et de molécules d'adhésion et par l’infiltration de leucocytes sur l’endothélium vasculaire. Finalement, l’administration intraveineuse de la protéine recombinante d’Angptl2 pendant quatre semaines à des souris LDLr-/-; hApoB-100+/+ augmente de 10 fois l'expansion de la plaque athérosclérotique et double leur taux de cholestérol circulant. Nous avons aussi montré que chez des patients athérosclérotiques, l'Angptl2 plasmatique est 6 fois plus élevée que chez des sujets sains du même âge. Nos études semblent donc définir l’Angptl2 comme un facteur contribuant directement au développement de l'athérosclérose en favorisant la sénescence, l’inflammation et l’oxydation des cellules endothéliales. Ces propriétés pourraient globalement définir l'Angptl2, non seulement comme un nouveau biomarqueur circulant de l’athérosclérose, mais également comme l'un de ses promoteurs. / Atherosclerosis is a chronic vascular inflammatory disease that develops gradually during life. While the control mechanisms of this disease are complex and variable, research continues to identify new protein candidates involved in atherogenesis. Angiopoietin-like2 (Angptl2) is a relatively unknown protein, recently shown to display angiogenic and pro-inflammatory properties. Based upon structural homology, Angptl2 is a member of the angiopoietin family; however, the Angptl2 receptor has not yet been clearly identified. The reported pathological situations in which Angptl2 may play a crucial role are multiple, but its molecular contribution in the development of atherosclerosis remains unknown. By differential display, we initially identified Angptl2 as being overexpressed in senescent endothelial cells, isolated and cultivated from internal mammary arteries of atherosclerotic patients undergoing coronary bypass. This observation was at the basis of my project. My specific objectives were 1) to determine the abundance of vascular Angptl2 in the presence of risk factors such as smoking and dyslipidemia, 2) to produce and purify a functional recombinant human Angptl2 protein in order to examine its effects on cellular function in vitro, and 3) to study the pro-atherogenic potential of Angptl2 in vivo using a mouse model of severe dyslipidemia. We showed that Angptl2 is preferentially secreted under pro-oxidant and pro-inflammatory conditions, with a 6-fold increase in endothelial Angptl2 expression in smoker coronary patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Based on these results, we hypothesized that, in addition to its known pro-inflammatory functions, Angptl2 has pro-oxidant properties. Accordingly, we demonstrated that recombinant Angptl2 stimulates the production of free radicals by HUVEC, an action exerted, at least in part, by the inhibition of the cytoprotective antioxidant pathway, Nrf2/HO-1, and potentially via the activation of the intracellular p38 MAPK pathway. In dyslipidemic LDLr-/-; hApoB-100+/+ mice, we showed that the levels of endogenous Angptl2 in plasma, vascular tissue and atherosclerotic lesions increase in parallel with the development of atherosclerosis. In addition, stimulation with recombinant Angptl2 induces an inflammatory response, as assessed by the expression of cytokines and adhesion molecules and by infiltration of leukocytes into the vascular endothelium. Furthermore, intravenous infusion of purified recombinant Angptl2 for four weeks promoted a 10-fold increase in the formation of atherosclerotic plaques in LDLr-/-; hApoB-100+/+ mice and doubled their circulating cholesterol levels. Finally, we also demonstrated that plasma Angptl2 is 6-fold higher in atherosclerotic patients than in age-matched healthy subjects. These studies therefore strongly suggest that Angptl2 could directly contribute to the development of atherosclerosis by promoting senescence, inflammation and oxidation in endothelial cells. Such properties indicate that Angptl2 may be both a new biomarker of atherosclerosis, as well as one of its contributors.

This thesis is focused on the unexplored field of organometallic copper(III) chemistry. Arylcopper(III) complexes have been proposed as key intermediates in Ullmann condensation reactions that consist in the coupling of aryl halides and heteroatom nucleophiles catalyzed by copper. The study of the reactivity of well-defined arylcopper(III) complexes may provide a better understanding of the mechanism of Ullmann condensation reactions, which is still under intense debate. In this doctoral dissertation we study the feasibility of well-defined arylcopper(III) complexes, which are stabilized within macrocyclic ligands, to participate in C-heteroatom bond forming reactions. We develop copper-catalyzed C-N and C-O bond forming reactions, as well halide exchange reactions, including fluorinations, based on Cu(I)/Cu(III) catalytic cycle within model aryl halide substrates. We uncover the fundamental understanding of the two-electron redox steps, oxidative addition and reductive elimination, at copper. / Aquesta tesi es centra en el camp de la química organometàl•lica del coure(III) que roman sense explorar. Els complexos arilcoure(III) s'han proposat com a intermedis clau en les reaccions de condensació Ullmann que consisteixen en l'acoblament d'halurs d'arils i nucleòfils basats en heteroàtoms catalitzades amb coure. L'estudi de la reactivitat de complexos arilcoure(III) ben definits pot proporcionar una millor comprensió del mecanisme de les reaccions de condensació Ullmann, el qual es troba sota un intens debat. En aquesta tesi doctoral s'estudia la viabilitat del complexos arilcoure(III), estabilitzats en lligands macrocíclics, de participar en reaccions de formació d'enllaç carboni-heteroàtom. S'han desenvolupat reaccions de formació d'enllaç C-N i C-O així com reaccions d'intercanvi d'halurs, on s'inclouen fluoracions, catalitzades amb coure i basades en un cicle catalític Cu(I)/Cu(III) utilitzant substrats models d'halur d'aril. S'ha obtingut una comprensió fonamental de les etapes redox a dos electrons, addició oxidant i eliminació reductiva, en coure.

Solution combustion synthesis (SCS) with its origin at IPC department of IISc has been widely practiced for synthesis of oxide materials. It is simple and low cost process, with energy and time savings that can be used to produce homogeneous, high purity, uniformly doped, nano crystalline ceramic powders. The powders characteristics such as crystallite size and surface area are primarily governed by enthalpy, flame temperature of combustion, fuel and fuel to oxidizer ratio ( F/O). In the present work an attempt has been made to investigate the process in order to exercise a control over the phase formation and nature of the product. Initial part of the work deals with the effect of fuel to oxidizer ratio on the powder properties of binary oxides with urea as fuel. The variation of adiabatic flame temperatures are calculated theoretically for different F/O ratios according to thermodynamic concept and correlated with the observed flame temperatures. Difference in the measured flame temperature and theoretical flame temperature in the fuel rich region is explained on the basis of incomplete combustion model. The effect of decomposition temperature difference of fuel and oxidizer, solubility of reactants on exothermicity of combustion reaction taking aluminiumnitrate system for various fuels is investigated. The effect of mixed fuel approach is studied by using the urea-glycine mixed fuel system using aluminium nitrate as oxidizer and employed for successful synthesis of the gamma alumina. Further Compaction behavior of SCS nano ceramic powders is studied by using Universal testing machine and the effect of F/O ratio, on agglomeration strength, aggregation strength of powder is investigated. Very few reports can be found on usage of SCS ceramic powder for biomaterial applications. By using these investigations a pyroxene series Diopside (CaMgSi2O6) silicate material is synthesized by SCS. Effect of different fuels on Diopside (DP) phase formation is investigated. Finally the DP and DP-ZnO composites, made by using Uniaxial hot pressing are investigated for their antibacterial, cytocompatibility properties. Antibacterial activity of E.Coli bacterium of Diopside powders was dose dependent type. Results of the bioactivity investigations shown flattened MC3T3 mouse osteoblast cells and MC C2C12 Myoblast cells and linkage bridges formed between them on Diopside and DP-ZnO surfaces show cyto compatibility and MTT results showed that percentage of ZnO needs to be tailored between 0-10 in order to achieve maximum cytocompatibility coupled with antibacterial property.

Στη παρούσα Διατριβή διερευνήθηκε η χρήση υλικών υψηλής διηλεκτρικής σταθεράς (high-k) ως οξειδίων ελέγχου σε διατάξεις παγίδευσης φορτίου τύπου MONOS (Μetal-Οxide-Νitride-Οxide-Silicon). Τα οξείδια που εξετάστηκαν ήταν το HfO2, τo ZrO2 και το Al2O3. Η ανάπτυξή τους πραγματοποιήθηκε με χρήση της μεθόδου εναπόθεσης ατομικού στρώματος (ALD). Οι ιδιότητες των δομών μνήμης μελετήθηκαν συναρτήσει: (α) των πρόδρομων μορίων της εναπόθεσης για τα HfO2 και ZrO2, (β) του οξειδωτικού μέσου της εναπόθεσης για την περίπτωση του Al2O3 και (γ) της επακόλουθης ανόπτησης. Η ηλεκτρική συμπεριφορά των δομών εξετάστηκε με την κατασκευή πυκνωτών τύπου MOS. Τα υμένια του HfO2 αναπτύχθηκαν επί διστρωματικής στοίβας SiO2/Si3N4 με (α) αλκυλαμίδιο του χαφνίου (ΤΕΜΑΗ) και Ο3 στους 275 oC, και (β) κυκλοπενταδιενύλιο του χαφνίου (HfD-04) και Ο3 στους 350 οC. Ομοίως, τα υμένια του ZrO2 αναπτύχθηκαν επί διστρωματικής στοίβας SiO2/Si3N4 με: (α) αλκυλαμίδιο του ζιρκονίου (ΤΕΜΑΖ) και Ο3 στους 275 oC και (β) κυκλοπενταδιενύλιο του ζιρκονίου (ZrD-04) με Ο3 στους 350 oC. Ο δομικός χαρακτηρισμός, για το HfO2, φανέρωσε πως η ύπαρξη ή όχι κρυσταλλικού χαρακτήρα και η σύσταση του οξειδίου εξαρτάται τόσο από το πρόδρομο μόριο αλλά και από την ανόπτηση (600 οC, 2 min). Αντίθετα, το ZrO2 έχει σε κάθε περίπτωση κρυσταλλικότητα. Τα ηλεκτρικά χαρακτηριστικά των πυκνωτών Si/SiO2/Si3N4/high-k/Pt, δείχνουν ότι οι δομές έχουν ικανοποιητική συμπεριφορά ως στοιχεία μνήμης αφού όλες οι ιδιότητες πληρούν τις βασικές προϋποθέσεις ως στοιχεία μνήμης, παρά την ανυπαρξία ενεργειακού φραγμού μεταξύ στρώματος παγίδευσης και οξειδίου ελέγχου. Η ικανότητα παγίδευσης και η επίδοση των δομών με HfO2 και ZrO2 δεν διαφοροποιούνται σημαντικά με χρήση διαφορετικού πρόδρομου μορίου ή με την ανόπτηση. Ο έλεγχος όμως της αντοχής των δομών σε επαναλαμβανόμενους παλμούς εγγραφής/διαγραφής αναδεικνύει ότι αμφότερες οι δομές που ανεπτύχθησαν με βάση το κυκλοπενταδιενύλιο έχουν μειωμένη αντοχή ηλεκτρικής καταπόνησης. Τo Al2O3 αναπτύχθηκε χρησιμοποιώντας το μόριο ΤΜΑ και ως οξειδωτικό μέσο: (α) H2O, (β) O3 και (γ) Plasma Ο2 (μέθοδος PE-ALD) σε συνδυασμό με ΤΜΑ. Οι δομές στην αρχική κατάσταση, χωρίς ανόπτηση, χαρακτηρίζονται από ισχυρό ρεύμα έγχυσης ηλεκτρονίων από την πύλη (υπό αρνητικές τάσεις) περιορίζοντας την ικανότητα φόρτισης και την επίδοση διαγραφής. Η ανόπτηση σε φούρνο και αδρανές περιβάλλον (850 ή 1050 oC, 15 min) προκάλεσε σημαντική βελτίωση των ηλεκτρικών χαρακτηριστικών των δομών λόγω του σημαντικού περιορισμού του παραπάνω φαινομένου. Μετά το στάδιο της ανόπτησης οι συνδυασμοί ΤΜΑ/Η2Ο και ΤΜΑ/Plasma Ο2 έχουν καλύτερες χαρακτηριστικές σε σχέση με αυτές του συνδυασμού ΤΜΑ/Ο3. Το φαινόμενο της διαρροής ηλεκτρονίων από την πύλη αποδίδεται στη μεγάλη συγκέντρωση και χωρική κατανομή του υδρογόνου στο υμένιο υψηλής διηλεκτρικής σταθεράς. Τέλος, διερευνήθηκε η τροποποίηση των ιδιοτήτων μνήμης των δομών με εμφύτευση ιόντων αζώτου χαμηλής ενέργειας και υψηλής δόσης στο Al2O3 και επακόλουθη ανόπτηση υψηλής θερμοκρασίας. Η παρουσία αζώτου στο υμένιο καθώς και ο χημικός δεσμός του εμφυτευμένου αζώτου είναι συνάρτηση της θερμοκρασίας ανόπτησης. Επομένως, οι ιδιότητες μνήμης εξαρτώνται από τη μορφή σύνδεσης και την συγκέντρωση του εμφυτευμένου αζώτου στο τροποποιημένο Al2O3. Η υψηλή θερμοκρασία ανόπτησης (1050 οC, 15 min) φαίνεται να αποφέρει δομές με τις καλύτερες ιδιότητες μνήμης. / This thesis studies the functionality of high-k oxides as blocking oxide layers in SONOS type charge-trap memory devices. The oxide materials that were examined were the HfO2, the ZrO2 and the Al2O3. All these blocking oxide layers were deposited by atomic layer deposition technique (ALD). The electrical performance of the trilayer stacks was examined using Pt-gate MOS-type capacitors. The properties of the memory structures were examined as a function of: (a) precursor chemistry of HfO2 and ZrO2 deposition, (b) the deposition oxidizing agent in the case of Al2O3 and (c) subsequent high temperature annealing steps. The HfO2 films were deposited on SiO2/Si3N4 bilayer stacks using: (a) hafnium alkylamide (TEMAH) and O3 at 275 oC, and (b) hafnium cyclopentadienyl (HfD-04) and O3 at 350 oC. Similarly the ZrO2 films were deposited by (a) zirconium alkylamide (TEMAZ) and O3 at 275 oC, and (b) zirconium cyclopentadienyl (ZrD-04) and O3 at 350 oC The structural characterization of the HfO2 showed that the crystallinity of the deposited high-k material depends on the precursor choice and the post deposition annealing step (600 °C, 2 min). On the contrary ZrO2 is deposited in a crystalline phase independent of the deposition conditions and the choice of the precursors. The electrical characterization of Si/SiO2/Si3N4/high-k/Pt capacitors showed that all fabricated structures operate well as memory elements, despite the absence of an energy barrier between the trapping layer and control oxide. The trapping efficiency and the performance of structures with HfO2 or ZrO2 blocking layers do not revealed a dependence upon the precursor chemistry. However, endurance testing using continuous write/erase pulses showed that both structures deposited by cyclopentadienyl precursors cannot sustain the resulting electrical stress. The Al2O3 layers were deposited using the TMA molecule while three different oxidizing agents were used: (a) H2O, (b) O3 and (c) oxygen plasma. Electrical testing of the resulting Pt-gate trilayer capacitors showed that in the deposited condition all three samples were characterized by gate electrode induced electron leakage currents in the negative bias regime, which completely masked the substrate hole injection effects. This effect limits the performance and the functionality of the memory stacks. After a high temperature annealing step (850 or 1050 oC, 15 min) this leakage current is reduced significantly and the stacks can function as memory elements. The results point to suggest that after annealing the best performance is exhibited by the TMA/H2O and TMA/Plasma O2 samples. The effect of gate induced electron leakage current is attributed to hydrogen related contamination, which has been verified by ToF-ERDA in depth profile measurements, at least for the case of TMA/H2O samples. The modification of the memory properties of the SiO2/Si3N4/Al2O3 stacks was also investigated using low energy and high fluence nitrogen implantation into Al2O3 layer. The concentration and the chemical bonding of the implanted nitrogen is a function of annealing temperature. The memory properties of the stack depend therefore on the chemical bonding and the concentration of the remaining nitrogen in the modified Al2O3. The high temperature annealing (1050 oC, 15 min) appears to provide the structures with improved memory properties in terms of retention and fast erase performance.