This thesis is an ethnographic account of the carving of wooden ritual statues and of the shamanic figure of the seer among the Kuna of the San Blas archipelago of Panamá. Through a study of the production of wooden ritual statues and of the birth and initiation of seers, I show that the distinction between the visible and the invisible, and between designs and images, is a crucial aspect of Kuna ways of thinking and experiencing their world. On one hand, the Kuna theory of design shows the importance of the development of social skills in the creation of person and sociality. On the other hand, the Kuna concept of image points to the relation between human and ancestral beings and to the transformative capacities of both. Through the constant interplay of the two categories, people interact with cosmic forces and create social life. The ethnography explores three aspects of the problem. First, the relationship between the islands inhabited by Kuna people and the mainland forest is described, focusing on the distance and separation of the two domains. The forest is perceived as a space populated by ancestral animal and tree entities, as well as demons and souls of the dead. Second, the carving of the ritual statues and the skill of Kuna carvers are described in relation to human and supernatural fertility. The birth of seers, different from that of other babies, provides evidence of the importance of natal design as the potential skills of each person. Third, relationships between human and supernatural beings are described considering Kuna myth and ritual action, in comparison with other indigenous American societies. This thesis concludes that it is through carving wooden statues and developing the capacity to see, Kuna people seek security in social life and protection from a predatory cosmos.

跨國公司台灣與巴拿馬員工文化差異對管理影響之研究─以巴拿馬台商為例 / Growth of international business has provoked the drain of companies venturing into cross borders. It is vitally decisive to consider facts before encountering any major problems. Corporations constructed by talented people dedicate the time to study economic factors such as taxation, government policies, and other investment dimensions. And nowadays, considered more important, the management of cross culture. This thesis measured the cultural similarities and differences between Panamanian and Taiwanese in a Taiwanese company established in Panama. The use of academic journals and surveys was important for collecting primary and secondary data. Local staff and Taiwanese managers transferred to Panama were interviewed; using a questionnaire structured using 5 (five) cultural dimensions discovered by Professor Geert Hofstede during his study in IBM, and studying the two constructs (communication and management style). Research Findings depicted that Taiwanese and Panamanians are more culturally similar than different; however, there are still challenges to face in this scenario. Some of these challenges for Taiwanese managers are to broaden their communication with staff, so local staff can fully enjoyed and receive a coaching style. Also, a challenge for local staff is their low uncertainty avoidance, which denotes a lack of communication in order to produce efficiently. Despite the challenges that have to be faced by the two parties, findings concluded that in this interaction, there is a positive relationship. Also, conclusion provided some recommendations for Taiwanese managers and other companies planning to establish in Panama. Those recommendations were as mentioned before, adapt their Taiwanese working style into the local staff considering some differences between; and use rewards for motivating staff. This study could also be used by Taiwanese Corporations planning to invest in Panama, and for any other country used as a reference to consider in advance. International community seeking to nurture knowledge regarding to culture and its consequences in organizations.

Seagrass habitats in South Florida are exceptionally valuable. They play an important ecological role in the coastal environment by stabilizing sediment, providing habitat for other species and supporting a whole food web. The availability of light and nutrients in aquatic ecosystems are the driving factors behind seagrass distribution. Water quality has been known to influence the abundance, distribution and composition of seagrass beds. South Florida has extensive diverse coastal communities. Throughout its human development dramatic changes have occurred in its natural ecosystems. In South Florida, many examples of seagrass habitat loss are documented, with a variety of contributing factors. The present research investigates the spatial and temporal patterns in benthic vegetation of the North Biscayne Bay marine basin, located just south of the heavily urbanized Port of Miami. The area has been altered significantly through dredging projects to widen and deepen the channels around the port facilities in order to accommodate larger vessels. This study focuses primarily on environmental and physical conditions that are likely to alter the distribution of seagrass. The availability of light and nutrients in aquatic ecosystems are the driving factors behind seagrass distribution and therefore one may expect seagrass degradation if any drastic changes occurred in these parameters. Project data used were collected from the South Florida Fish and Invertebrate Assessment Network project (FIAN), an element of the greater Everglades Restoration Program. Additional Environmental and physical data were obtained from the South Florida Water Management District (SFWMD) and the National Ocean and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The FIAN Port of Miami (POM) study location is dominated by three species of seagrass: Thalassia testudinum, Syringodium filiforme, and Halodule wrightii. Analysis has shown that over the seven-year period, 2005 - 2011 the state of the seagrass has been fairly stable with minor perturbances (p > 0.05). There are some seasonal fluctuations evident in seagrass cover-densities, but minimal change was observed between the spring and fall (p > 0.05). Syringodium is the dominant species, followed by Thalassia and Halodule within the POM. Environmental and physical conditions from FIAN (salinity, temperature, sediment depth, turbidity, etc.) varied between years and seasons; however, most measurements remained in the ideal range for seagrass growth. Water depth, sediment depth, and turbidity were significant predictors of seagrass occurrence in the POM; however, water depth was the only major predictor of seagrass cover-density. The available environmental and physical data from the SFWMD showed minimal changes in the environmental and physical measurements across available sample years and are in the ideal range for seagrass. Turbidity has improved since the completion of the port construction and major weather disturbances (hurricanes) in 2005. Minimal changes were detected during the seven year study period (2005-2011) within the seagrass habitat of the heavily urbanized region of POM.

Text in English / This research examines the applicability of the Kindernothilfe self-help group approach among the Ngäbe indigenous people in Panama from the perspectives of complex system theory and development as empowerment. It is based on an extensive literature review and an empirical qualitative study with focus group discussions and expert interviews following the grounded theory method. The dissertation displays the multiple dimensions that have reverberated to poverty and to the failure of development and most group approaches in the Ngäbe region. Nevertheless, it indicates that a culturally fitting self-help group concept could become a promising approach to empowering the Ngäbe people. Some crucial adaptations, however, are necessary. The most significant change regards the suggestion to work with mixed-sex ‘family groups’ that combine peer group meetings and joint gatherings. It represents the most suitable approach both from the perspective of the Ngäbe people and from the suitable approach both from the perspective of the Ngäbe people and from the viewpoint of gender mainstreaming and complexity. / Development Studies / M.A. (Development Studies)

Heliconius butterflies exhibit Müllerian mimicry, in which two or more unpalatable species share a mutual advantage from having a common conspicuous colour pattern. These tropical butterflies have impressive visual signals, which are under conflicting selection pressures, as they are used in choosing potential mates and defending against visual predators through aposematic coloration. As both selection pressures are likely to be strong, different elements of the signal might be adapted for different receivers. Here, I combine sensory ecology with behavioural ecology to explain Heliconius colours signals of different co-mimic pairs. I explore how mimicry in Heliconius is perceived both from the perspective of predators and conspecifics, using visual abilities of both butterflies and birds. The different visual sensitivities of avian predators, H. erato females and males make them to perceive Heliconius coloration in different ways. My work suggests that having the ability to see in the ultra-violet light range enables higher discrimination between co-mimics both for birds and butterflies. Heliconius warning colours transmit a consistent signal across time of the day and habitat in a tropical forest for avian vision. In contrast through Heliconius vision there is evidence that patterns are more conspicuous in their own habitats. All these traits could facilitate communication between co-mimics and reduce the cost of confusion in courtship while still maintaining the advantages of Müllerian mimicry against predation. I conducted a field experiment to show that attack rates on a novel distasteful butterfly reduced over time, suggesting that Heliconius wing colouration can enhance aversion among predators. Finally, I have shown that Heliconius butterflies use leaf shape as a cue to approach their host plants, demonstrating the potential for Heliconius to drive negative frequency dependent selection on the leaf shape of their Passiflora host plants. Overall these results highlight ecological interactions between Heliconius butterflies, their predators and host plants.

Orientador: Luiz Fernando de Oliveira e Silva Carvalho / Banca: Geraldo Camilo Alberton / Banca: Adolorata Aparecida Bianco Carvalho / Resumo: A transmissão pela via fecal-oral é considerada o mais importante meio de disseminação de Salmonella sp. entre os suínos. Foi comprovada que a transmissão de Salmonella sp. através do contato naso-nasal entre suínos pode ser viável. Porém, alguns experimentos não conseguiram demonstrar tal transmissão em determinados sorotipos de Salmonella enterica. Este ensaio teve como objetivo produzir infecção experimental de Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica sorotipo Panama e verificar a importância da via nasonasal na transmissão entre leitões desmamados. Seis leitões recém-desmamados foram adquiridos de granja previamente selecionada, livre de Salmonella sp. Análises bacteriológicas confirmaram que todos os animais estavam livres de contaminação por Salmonella sp. Utilizaram-se baias isoladoras que proporcionavam o contato naso-nasal e eliminavam a possibilidade de outras vias de transmissão e de contaminação externa. Três grupos foram formados: controle, sentinela e infectados. Os leitões do grupo controle e do grupo sentinela receberam, individualmente, por via oral, solução estéril, enquanto que leitões do grupo infectado receberam inóculo contendo 2,16 X 1010 UFC de Salmonella Panama. Foram alojados nos isoladores respectivos e retirados depois de 14 dias, período no qual amostras de fezes eram colhidas e avaliadas diariamente. Os animais foram necropsiados e amostras de tecidos colhidas. Realizaram-se testes bacteriológicos, ELISA e sorotipificação. Houve infecção sistêmica por Salmonella Panama nos animais do grupo infectado, porém os resultados revelaram não haver a transmissão pela via naso-nasal entre leitões desmamados, pois em nenhum momento o agente foi isolado dos animais sentinelas. / Abstract: The faecal-oral transmission is considering the most important route for transmission of Salmonella sp. between pigs. It has been proven that the Salmonella sp. transmission through the nose-to-nose contact among pigs can be viable. However, current data could not demonstrate such transmission in certain serovars of Salmonella enterica. This study aimed to produce experimental infection of Salmonella enterica serovars Panama and verifies the importance of the nose-to-nose contact in the transmission among weaned pigs. Six recently-weaned pigs were acquired from farm previously selected; free from Salmonella sp. Bacteriological analysis ruled out previous Salmonella sp contamination in all selected subjects. Isolations cabinets were used that provided the nose-to-nose contact and to eliminated the presence of other transmission routes and of outside contamination. Three groups were formed: control, sentinel and infected. The pigs of the control group and of the sentinel group, received, individually, orally sterile solution, while pigs of the infected group received solution containing 2,16 X 1010 CFU of Salmonella Panama. They were housed in the respective isolations cabinets and removed from it after 14 days, period in which samples of faeces were collected and submitted to daily analysis. The animals were necropsied and samples of tissues were collected. They were tested by bacteriological analysis, ELISA and serovars typification. There was systemic infection for Salmonella Panama in the animals of the infected group; however there was non transmission by nose-to-nose contact among weaned pigs, justifying the non isolation of the agent in the sentinel group at any moment. / Mestre

Since they first emerged into the public consciousness in 1994, the Zapatista National Liberation Army (EZLN) has gathered considerable attention and support on the world stage for its struggle with the Mexican federal government over the issue of indigenous rights. The Zapatistas are now popularly viewed as indigenous rebels standing up for indigenous rights against the neoliberal economics. Yet comparatively less attention has been given to its struggles with the federal government over an area of protected land within the Lacandón jungle known as the Montes Azules Biosphere Reserve. The conflict is centered on a large settler population within the Reserve and whether it is a threat to the jungles viability. The environmental group, Conservation International (CI) believes that they are, yet the settlers enjoy the support of the EZLN, who opposes any attempt to move them. Despite this dispute, the two organizations claim seemingly similar goals. CI has declared that it is dedicated to local control over conservation projects. Meanwhile, EZLN has been fighting for greater local political power in regards to indigenous government. More striking still, is that this matter has placed the EZLN in direct opposition to the Lacandón Maya, even though it has portrayed itself as the defender of all of Mexicos indigenous people.<p>It is these apparent contradictions between the EZLNs political positions and the actual sides of the conflict that make the struggle over Montes Azules worth examining. Beyond the simplified statements of public platforms, the objections of the EZLN to the reserve and its supporters to the Lacandones position are rooted in historical conflicts over decision making on landholding. The EZLN feels that the government has constantly excluded indigenous farmers from decision making over this matter to their detriment and thus it feels that local control over land is a fundamental part of indigenous life. As such its position on Montes Azules must be understood in terms of how its ideas of being indigenous come into conflict with the Lacandón Mayas territory in the reserve and CIs position on the settler population. In this way indigenous identity is seen not merely as a matter of cultural significance, but a foundation for a concrete political agenda, which is articulated in the EZLNs stance over Montes Azules.

Since they first emerged into the public consciousness in 1994, the Zapatista National Liberation Army (EZLN) has gathered considerable attention and support on the world stage for its struggle with the Mexican federal government over the issue of indigenous rights. The Zapatistas are now popularly viewed as indigenous rebels standing up for indigenous rights against the neoliberal economics. Yet comparatively less attention has been given to its struggles with the federal government over an area of protected land within the Lacandón jungle known as the Montes Azules Biosphere Reserve. The conflict is centered on a large settler population within the Reserve and whether it is a threat to the jungles viability. The environmental group, Conservation International (CI) believes that they are, yet the settlers enjoy the support of the EZLN, who opposes any attempt to move them. Despite this dispute, the two organizations claim seemingly similar goals. CI has declared that it is dedicated to local control over conservation projects. Meanwhile, EZLN has been fighting for greater local political power in regards to indigenous government. More striking still, is that this matter has placed the EZLN in direct opposition to the Lacandón Maya, even though it has portrayed itself as the defender of all of Mexicos indigenous people.<p>It is these apparent contradictions between the EZLNs political positions and the actual sides of the conflict that make the struggle over Montes Azules worth examining. Beyond the simplified statements of public platforms, the objections of the EZLN to the reserve and its supporters to the Lacandones position are rooted in historical conflicts over decision making on landholding. The EZLN feels that the government has constantly excluded indigenous farmers from decision making over this matter to their detriment and thus it feels that local control over land is a fundamental part of indigenous life. As such its position on Montes Azules must be understood in terms of how its ideas of being indigenous come into conflict with the Lacandón Mayas territory in the reserve and CIs position on the settler population. In this way indigenous identity is seen not merely as a matter of cultural significance, but a foundation for a concrete political agenda, which is articulated in the EZLNs stance over Montes Azules.

ABSTRACT Background: Worldwide HIV is going through a feminization and rejuvenation as more women are living with HIV/AIDS, increasing the risk of vertical transmission. Despite the efforts in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) by 2010, Panama was the third most affected country in the region with HIV/AIDS, with females aged 15-24 twice as affected as men. Methods: This descriptive epidemiological study of HIV vertical transmission in Panama reviewed clinical charts to identify health care personnel's practices during pregnancies in 2008. This study also examines the impact of interventions comparing the HIV outcome of the children at the end of the 18-month follow-up period (March 2011). Results: This study found 290 clinical charts; 116 from women and girls living with HIV who were pregnant in 2008 and 174 clinical charts of prenatally exposed children to HIV in 2008. During pregnancy, 58.05% of the mothers received HAART, and 68.39% received intravenous zidovudine during labor. The 81.03% of the children received oral zidovudine six weeks after birth, and 54.02% were fed with infant-adapted formula. During the follow-up period 12.64% of children studied were diagnosed as HIV positive and 36.36% of those children had an older seropositive sibling. Discussion: The Republic of Panama has made efforts to prevent vertical HIV transmission. The current study shows early interventions such as receiving HAART during pregnancy, intravenous zidovudine during labor, caesarean section birth, receiving oral zidovudine six weeks after birth, and feeding with infant-adapted formula that show statistical significance when compared to final diagnosis of the prenatally exposed children to HIV.

This research concerns a Kuna-Spanish bilingual elementary school in Panama City, founded for Kuna children by Kuna teachers. Based on ethnographic and linguistic fieldwork, this research investigates the socio-cultural context for the emergence of the school and the ways that students, teachers and parents, together with Kuna elders, navigate the path of indigenous schooling. The process of negotiating linguistic and cultural meanings in Kuna-language education includes both "traditionalized" Kuna forms of learning and informal education in and around the home. These various foundations of Kuna knowledge, from the use of Kuna oral history to eating Kuna food in the home, are incorporated into the curriculum in various ways, highlighting the potential of schooling as a place of knowledge production for indigenous peoples that is culturally inclusive. At the same time, the manner in which Kuna identity is indexed in the school is uneven. It is liberating in some moments while very restrictive in others, reflecting similar patterns, often in relation to state-sponsored notions of "multiculturalism" in the Kuna community and in the broader context of Panamanian society. In order to fully explore the complexities of the school and its workings, this research explores the Kuna experience in Panama City, where more than half of the Kuna population currently resides. This dissertation is a contribution to the fields of linguistic anthropology and the anthropology of education, analyzing the case of an urban Kuna school that employs both Western and indigenous pedagogy and content, with specific implications for studies of language socialization, bilingual education and educational politics for indigenous peoples. / text