In this thesis, I explore how the duration of missions affects the participation of women in United Nations (UN) peace operations. I argue that women are less likely to be deployed in the early stages of missions because new missions are associated with high levels of uncertainty which is ultimately a type of risk. Instead, women’s participation will increase as the uncertainty decreases and the operating environment becomes more predictable. I also test if more gender equal force contributing countries are less prone to deploy women to new missions due to a stronger gendered protection norm constraining deployment of women to risky environments. Applying a large-N approach, this thesis studies the proportion of women in military contributions to UN peace operations between 2009 and 2015. Using a set of multilevel mixed-effects generalized linear models, the main argument initially find empirical support. But, when the main findings are challenged through robustness tests, the results become somewhat ambiguous and it is not sound to exclude the possibility that unobserved factors drive the empirical results. This thesis does not find more gender equal countries to be less prone to deploy women to the early stages of missions. Rather, countries which see higher levels of gender equality seem more prone to deploy larger proportions of women, regardless of when the deployment takes place.

[pt] Esta dissertação consiste em um estudo de caso da operação da ONU estabelecida em El Salvador (1991-1995), que serve, aqui, como referência para a discussão sobre os novos propósitos desse instrumento ad hoc do sistema de segurança coletiva das Nações Unidas. Voltadas para a resolução de conflitos intra-estatais, as missões apresentam uma atuação inovadora, a partir de 1989, relacionada à consolidação da paz nacional. De acordo com a abordagem político-institucional conferida ao presente estudo, dentre as atividades desempenhadas em campo pela ONU, especial atenção será dada aos esforços para o fortalecimento do sistema institucional e para o estabelecimento de um estado democrático de direito no âmbito doméstico.Finalmente, com base na experiência salvadorenha, o objetivo desta discussão é analisar a contribuição das Nações Unidas, através do trabalho desenvolvido pelas novas operações de paz, respaldado nos valores democráticos e no respeito aos direitos humanos, para a criação de um ambiente nacional pacífico e auto- sustentável. / [en] This dissertation consists of a case study of the operation established by the United Nations in El Salvador from 1991 through 1995, which serves as a reference for the discussion on new purposes of this ad hoc instrument of the United Nations' collective security system. The peace operation missions present an innovating practice, favoring the consolidation of a domestic preaceful enviroment. According to the political-institutional approach used in the present study, among the activities carried out by the UN, special attention will be granted to efforts for the invigoration of institutional systems and for the establishment of a democratic state at the domestic level. Finally, based on the Salvadoran experience, the objective of this discussion is to analyze the contributions of the UN through the work developed by a generation of peace operations, which are based on democratic values and the respect of human rights, for the creation of a peaceful domestic enviroment.

Este trabalho tem como objetivo analisar uma operação de manutenção da paz considerada bem sucedida, a Misión de Observadores de las Naciones Unidas em El Salvador (ONUSAL). A dissertação será dividida em dois artigos: o Artigo I da dissertação será apresentado como revisão bibliográfica da literatura sobre as Operações de Manutenção da Paz, desde sua criação, incluindo um exame de seus casos notórios; o Artigo II será apresentado como um estudo de caso sobre a atuação da ONUSAL em El Salvador durante a guerra civil. A hipótese que orienta este estudo é que, apesar dos notórios fracassos da década de 90, as PKOs constituem-se como instrumento relevante para a manutenção da paz e segurança internacionais, capaz de criar condições para auxiliar os Estados a reestabelecerem e manterem a paz após um conflito. Segundo nossa análise, a ONUSAL constitui-se como um caso bem sucedido de atuação das PKOs. / This study has the purpose of analyzing a Peacekeeping Operation regarded as successful, the United Nations Observer Mission in El Salvador (ONUSAL). The dissertation consists of two articles: Article I will be submitted as a literature review of Peacekeeping Operations, since its inception, including an examination of its notorious cases; Article II will be submitted as a case study of ONUSAL\'s performance in El Salvador during the civil war. The hypothesis guiding this study is that, despite the notorious failures of the 90s, the PKOs are important instruments for the maintenance of international peace and security, capable of setting conditions to assist States in re-establishing and maintaining peace after a conflict. According to our analysis, ONUSAL represents a successful case regarding PKOs.

This research explores developments within the United Nations that have led to the creation of the Forward Intervention Brigade (FIB). It will consider the political, legal, economic, and ethical issues surrounding armed defensive-intervention during humanitarian crises. Topics explored include the effectiveness of armed intervention during crises and ethics concerning the use of arms when intervening for humanitarian or peacemaking purposes. How success and failure is being defined and the current status of the mission will be discussed. The question of the possible costs of non-intervention is raised. This case example is linked to the failure of the UN to effectively respond to the genocide that occurred in Rwanda in 1994 and the subsequent cost of that failure. The development of powers within the UN is considered in terms of the creation of this armed force, as are the ways this may impact the interpretation of international law regarding armed intervention.

A proposta de trabalhar o tema da accountability das Nações Unidas neste estudo tem origem no interesse em entender como a organização responde a atos cometidos, intencional ou não intencionalmente, que violam os direitos de quem, em princípio, a organização deveria proteger. Sobretudo acerca das operações de paz, expoentes da ideia de intervenção militar no âmbito multilateral, observa-se uma crescente preocupação com a proteção de indivíduos como formas de justificar essa ação, ou seja, esse tipo de ação é justificado pela necessidade de proteção da população de determinado Estado dada a incapacidade deste de provê-la, a despeito de seu objetivo fundamental de estabelecer a paz a partir de um conflito vigente. No entanto, a implementação das operações de paz se mostra uma tarefa complexa, tendo em vista a multiplicidade de atores envolvidos, a situação dual do sistema internacional, que transita entre o princípio da soberania e a valorização do indivíduo em situações de conflito, bem como à dependência da organização em relação aos meios de funcionamento desse tipo de atividade e ao seu caráter ad hoc. Sendo assim, essas características das missões de paz refletem as dificuldades de observar a accountability, o que resulta em um panorama de controle pouco efetivo sobre a realidade em campo. Ainda, mediante a ocorrência de ações ou inações que resultem nas violações de direitos reconhecidos pela comunidade internacional, os mecanismos oficiais de resposta institucional são pouco delineados e, em alguns casos, inexistentes. Dentro desse contexto, esse estudo se propõe a entender o conceito de accountability aplicável às Nações Unidas a partir da análise das ferramentas de responsabilização política e jurídica institucionais, tendo como enfoque o estudo do comportamento da missão de paz durante o conflito na Bósnia nos anos 90 e a consequente queda de Srebrenica, que resultou no massacre de mais de 8.000 bósnios sob os olhos das tropas holandesas que atuavam no local. A partir da metodologia de estudo de caso e análise documental, conclui-se que dentre os avanços do caso de Srebrenica no sentido da responsabilização estão o ineditismo da atribuição da responsabilidade penal ao Estado e o debate acerca da atribuição da responsabilidade a partir da conduta em campo na esfera penal, enquanto que os retrocessos dizem respeito, sobretudo, ao caráter ad hoc das missões de paz e à incompatibilidade entre Estado e indivíduo com a preponderância do papel do Estado na possível trajetória de responsabilização institucional do caso. / The proposal to work on the subject of United Nations accountability in this study stems from the interest in understanding how the organization responds to acts committed, whether intentionally or unintentionally, that violate the rights of those whom, in principle, the organization should protect. Above all, there is a growing concern about the protection of individuals as a way of justifying this action, that is, this type of action is justified by the need to protect the population of a particular State given the latter\'s inability to provide it, despite its fundamental objective of establishing peace from a conflict in force. However, the implementation of peace operations is a complex task, considering the multiplicity of actors involved, the dual situation of the international system, which transits between the principle of sovereignty and the valuation of the individual in situations of conflict, as well as to the dependence of the organization on the means of operation of this type of activity and its ad hoc character. Thus, these characteristics of peace missions reflect the difficulties of observing accountability, which results in a scenario of ineffective control over reality in the field. Moreover, through the occurrence of actions or inaction that result in violations of rights recognized by the international community, official mechanisms of institutional response are poorly delineated and in some cases non-existent. In this context, this study intends to understand the concept of accountability applicable to the United Nations from the analysis of the tools of institutional political and legal accountability, focusing on the study of the behavior of the peacekeeping operation during the conflict in Bosnia in the 1990s And the consequent fall of Srebrenica, which resulted in the massacre of more than 8,000 Bosnians under the eyes of Dutch troops operating there. Based on the methodology of case study and analysis of documents, it is concluded that among the advances in the Srebrenica case in the sense of accountability are the novelty of the attribution of criminal responsibility to the State and the debate about the attribution of responsibility from the conduct, as the retrocesses are related to the ad hoc nature of peace missions and the incompatibility between State and individual with the preponderance of the role of the State in the possible trajectory of institutional accountability of the case.

Esta dissertação trata da inteligência na Missão das Nações Unidas na República Democrática do Congo (MONUSCO). Está dividida em três partes. Na primeira, contextualiza-se a pesquisa de inteligência em operações de paz nos Estudos Estratégicos Internacionais, abordando sua relevância, principais conceitos e teorias, bibliografia acadêmica e documental. Na segunda parte, apresenta-se o artigo científico, focado no caso da MONUSCO. Para avaliar se e como a inteligência contribuiu para aprimorar a efetividade da cadeia de comando e controle (C2) na missão, procedeu-se a análise do ponto de vista organizacional e funcional das estruturas de inteligência (G2, JMAC e JOC). As evidências foram colhidas por meio de entrevistas semiestruturadas com o staff da MONUSCO, de visitas técnicas à sede da missão em Goma e às localizações de Kanybayonga, Kiwanja e Rutshuru, da análise de relatórios e documentos da ONU contendo dados não estruturados, bem como por meio de revisão da literatura especializada. As conclusões da pesquisa indicaram que a inteligência contribuiu para aprimorar as estruturas de C2 na medida em que teve um papel crítico nos níveis tático (neutralização de grupos armados) e operacional (compartilhamento de informações e fornecimento de consciência situacional para a missão). Todavia, ela teve um impacto menor no nível estratégico, devido a uma lacuna persistente entre a missão em campo e a sede da ONU em Nova Iorque. Na terceira parte da dissertação, propõe-se uma agenda para pesquisas futuras, destacando o estudo do papel da ONU (e das operações de paz) no provimento de segurança na ordem internacional em transformação. / This thesis deals with intelligence in the United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUSCO). It is divided in three parts. The first one contextualizes the research on intelligence peacekeeping in the scope of the International Strategic Studies by presenting its relevance, its main concepts and theories, and its specialized literature and documents. The second (and main) part of the document is comprised by the article itself, a case study of intelligence in MONUSCO. The organization of the mission-related intelligence structures (G2, JMAC, and JOC) and their practices were analyzed in order to assess if and how intelligence may have effectively contributed to MONUSCO. Evidence was collected through interviews with MONUSCO staff, technical visits to the mission’s headquarters in Goma, to the locations of Kanybayonga, Kiwanja, and Rutshuru, UN reports and documents containing unstructured data, and specialized literature review. The findings indicated that intelligence contributed to improve C2 at MONUSCO by playing a critical role at the tactical (neutralizing armed groups) and operational (sharing information and providing mission-wide situational awareness) levels. Nonetheless, it had a lesser impact at the strategic level, due to a persistent gap between the field mission and the UN structures in New York. The final part suggests an agenda for future research projects, highlighting the study of the UN role (and peacekeeping) in providing international security in the changing international order.

Este trabalho tem como objetivo analisar uma operação de manutenção da paz considerada bem sucedida, a Misión de Observadores de las Naciones Unidas em El Salvador (ONUSAL). A dissertação será dividida em dois artigos: o Artigo I da dissertação será apresentado como revisão bibliográfica da literatura sobre as Operações de Manutenção da Paz, desde sua criação, incluindo um exame de seus casos notórios; o Artigo II será apresentado como um estudo de caso sobre a atuação da ONUSAL em El Salvador durante a guerra civil. A hipótese que orienta este estudo é que, apesar dos notórios fracassos da década de 90, as PKOs constituem-se como instrumento relevante para a manutenção da paz e segurança internacionais, capaz de criar condições para auxiliar os Estados a reestabelecerem e manterem a paz após um conflito. Segundo nossa análise, a ONUSAL constitui-se como um caso bem sucedido de atuação das PKOs. / This study has the purpose of analyzing a Peacekeeping Operation regarded as successful, the United Nations Observer Mission in El Salvador (ONUSAL). The dissertation consists of two articles: Article I will be submitted as a literature review of Peacekeeping Operations, since its inception, including an examination of its notorious cases; Article II will be submitted as a case study of ONUSAL\'s performance in El Salvador during the civil war. The hypothesis guiding this study is that, despite the notorious failures of the 90s, the PKOs are important instruments for the maintenance of international peace and security, capable of setting conditions to assist States in re-establishing and maintaining peace after a conflict. According to our analysis, ONUSAL represents a successful case regarding PKOs.

A Organização das Nações Unidas (ONU) foi criada com o objetivo precípuo de assegurar e promover a paz mundial. Em mais de 60 anos de existência, a Organização ainda não logrou implementar a força militar permanente (ver artigo 47, parágrafo 3º da Carta da ONU) que seria a principal encarregada pela consecução desse objetivo por intermédio da coordenação da Comissão de Estado Maior. O fato de não ter constituído a referida força não significou a paralisação da ONU nos assuntos concernentes à paz. Demonstrando grande poder de adaptação, a Organização implementou as Missões de Paz, embora estas não existam oficialmente em seu estatutos. As missões de paz da ONU são a face mais visível do trabalho da Organização na promoção da paz mundial. Em 58 anos de existência, essas missões têm evoluído em quantidade e complexidade, exigindo, cada vez mais, recursos materiais e humanos. Em 1999, o estabelecimento da Missão de Paz no Timor Leste chamou a atenção da comunidade internacional por diversos motivos. Àquela época, a Instituição passava por uma crise de credibilidade provocada pela sua inação nos episódios inicias do Kosovo naquele mesmo ano. Não obstante, logrou desenvolver no Timor Leste a mais bem sucedida missão de paz jamais estabelecida em qualquer outra época de sua história. No Timor, a ONU assumiu todas as funções de governo a fim de ali desenvolver as bases necessárias ao nascimento de um Estado. Este estudo tem por finalidade fazer uma análise de todo esse processo, ressaltando a importância e o significado que essa missão teve no contexto das operações de paz das Nações Unidas. / The United Nations (UN) was created with the primary purpose of ensuring and promoting world peace. In over 60 years of existence, the Organization has not yet succeeded in implementing a permanent military force (see article 47, paragraph 3 of the UN Charter) that would be the main responsible for the attainment of this goal, acting under the coordination of the Military Staff Committee. The fact that the UN failed to constitute the aforesaid force does not mean it is inert when it comes to subjects concerning peace. Demonstrating a great power of adaptation, the Organization implemented the Peacekeeping Missions, although these do not officially exist in its statutes. The UN Peacekeeping Missions are the most visible face of the Organization’s work towards the promotion of world peace. In 58 years of existence, these missions have been evolving in quantity and complexity, increasingly demanding material and human resources. In 1999, the establishment of the Peacekeeping Mission in East Timor called the attention of the international community for a range of reasons. By that time, the Institution was undergoing a crisis of confidence due to its inaction in the early episodes of Kosovo that very year. Still, it managed to develop in East Timor the most successful peacekeeping mission ever established in its history. In Timor, the UN also took over all the government functions in order to develop there the necessary bases for the birth of a State. This study aims at analyzing this whole process, stressing the importance and meaning that this mission had within the context of the UN peacekeeping operations.

This doctoral project explores the ways in which European small states' approaches to peacekeeping have been affected by the changing nature of peace missions. The central objective is to explain the choices made by small states' governments to participate in missions which no longer fit traditional peacekeeping models. The increasing need for comprehensive and robust responses to international crises characterised by intra-state violence has challenged small states whose elites and publics have been accustomed to deploying troops to low intensity missions tasked to separate parties. Throughout the Cold War and beyond, traditional peacekeeping developed along the norms of non-use of force, impartiality and consent. Identifying positively with the objectives and normative underpinnings of traditional peacekeeping, small states have actively committed their armed forces based on a perception of themselves as international norm entrepreneurs. This thesis challenges the notion that small states' governments commit material and human resources to new types of peace operations motivated by such self-images. Transformations in the practice of peacekeeping are forcing foreign policy agents in small states to rethink the function(s) that their states should play in the international system towards peacekeeping. Three questions are considered: I) what new or existing roles are small states adopting in this evolving peacekeeping system? II) through what political processes do these roles emerge? and III) how do these roles affect decision-making on peacekeeping deployments? Small state research cannot effectively answer these questions nor comprehensively explain what small states do in international affairs because it lacks analytical tools to link structure and agency. A theoretical approach grounded in role theory is better suited to understand the foreign policies of small states and re-evaluate their peacekeeping credentials. A model depicting the interaction between role socialisation and domestic role processes is constructed to guide four empirical analyses of recent peacekeeping decisions taken by Austrian and Belgian governments. This theoretical foundation allows the contention that small states' changing self-perceptions do not necessarily originate from internal ideational factors, as the norm entrepreneur argument suggests. Each case study traces how the interplay between external role demands and domestically conceived ideas about the state's position in an evolving peacekeeping system informs Austria's and Belgium's adjustment to new peace missions. Austria's decisions to withdraw from UNDOF in 2013, and to participate in EUFOR Chad 2007-2008, are telling cases of a small state adapting to new forms of peacekeeping through a reconfiguration of roles. This thesis also investigates the roles that have motivated the contributions made by two Belgian governments towards the Malian crisis, 2012-2013 and the 2006 Israeli-Hezbollah war. This project contributes to small state research by showing that these actors fulfil a broad range of functions in the international system. It also improves the way we explain small states' foreign policy actions by providing a dynamic framework capturing the relationship between structure and agency, and by delving into the decision-making processes of small states. Additionally, it adds to the peacekeeping literature by providing an original account as to why states, and in particular small states, contribute troops to missions operating under evolving conditions. Finally, inputs are made to the scholarship on role theory by exploring how state size influences role conceptions and investigating how role socialisation and domestic role dynamics interact to affect the roles and decisions of an under-studied category of states.

<p>The Scandinavian countries have a long tradition of taking part in peacekeeping missions and also of research in this field. The aim of this thesis is to continue the tradition of research and try to shed some more light on the mental health aspects of peacekeeping operations. Two methods were used to accomplish this. One was to study a Swedish battalion serving for 6 months in NATO´s IFOR mission in Bosnia in 1996, using a longitudinal approach. Questionnaires covering predeployment factors, general mental health, traumatic experiences and effects of support were used. The other method was to perform a register study in which 39 768 individuals who had served in peacekeeping missions were compared to a matched group of the general population with regard to differences in suicide rates. The general level of mental health problems and post-traumatic reactions was low and did not change over time. Traumatic experiences during service only appeared to make a temporary difference in general mental health. There are indications that possible predictors for poor mental health in peacekeepers could be constituted by: lower mean scores on the SOC questionnaire and on the Emotional Stability scale of the FFPI; personality disorders in general; prior family problems or psychiatric problems expressed through suicidal thoughts before deployment and problems experienced post-deployment, such as "relationship problems", death of a close relative", or "financial problems". It was found that the combination of peer support and a defusing session led by platoon commanders had positive effects on the post deployment mental health. The rate of personality disorders appears to be at the same level as or at a slightly lower level than in the general population. Compared to the general population, the suicide rate was showed to be lower in the peacekeeper population.</p>