Why do some international actors who intervene militarily in civil wars continue their military engagement after the war has ended, while other actors end their intervention and withdraw all military forces at the conclusion of the war? What explains the continuation of outside military intervention from wartime to peacetime, and why might this dimension of military intervention vary across conflicts? In analyzing this puzzle, this study introduces a new theoretical concept: persistent intervention. Defined as the continuation of an external state’s military intervention in a civil war after the war ends, the concept of persistent intervention sheds light on the connections between wartime and peacetime, or the post-conflict period. Drawing on a new dataset on post-war interventions across the globe in countries experiencing civil wars that ended between 1957-2020, as well as detailed comparative case studies of four interventions from the Middle East and Africa, this dissertation finds the availability and access to political and economic gains of the intervention as the main driver of the decision to keep troops in peacetime. The domestic elites' desire to protect these predatory gains from the intervention leaves some interveners entangled in the civil war country, where leaving too soon might devalue and destabilize the investments. The primary factor undermining persistent interventions is found to be intervener domestic instability that disrupts this extractive mechanism. Findings also have implications for external involvement in peace agreements and peacekeeping operations. / Political Science

Thesis (MA)--University of Stellenbosch, 2007. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This thesis evaluates and explores the function of Private Military Companies (PMCs) on the African continent. The phenomenon of PMCs evolved after the end of the Cold War. This study focuses on the relevant international and national legislation regulating PMCs that conduct active military assistance operations. These PMC operations have a strategic impact on the political, social, economical and security environments of the areas in which they are contracted to operate. The purpose of the thesis is to assess whether PMCs are efficient and cost effective, can be held accountable and to whom, and if current legislation (national and international) regulating PMCs is sufficient. This thesis is a literature survey that seeks descriptive and comparative information relevant to the purpose of this study. It deals with that information qualitatively. No empirical research has been conducted. It is therefore not an opinion survey as no questionnaires have been completed, although interviews with knowledgeable people have been conducted. The thesis focuses on the operations conducted by the now defunct Executive Outcomes (of the Republic of South Africa), a combat type PMC in Angola and Sierra Leone and Military Professional Resources Incorporated (of the United States of America), a non-combat type PMC in Equatorial Guinea. The study concludes that PMC operations through legitimate government contracts at international level are indeed legitimate. The regulations (international and national, if they exist) regarding PMCs are not sufficient, and allow for many grey areas. PMCs that operate in this sphere of grey areas are unacceptable for the international community in the current milieu. PMCs are, however, operating in a vacuum of accountability and regulation (international and national). With sufficient legislation, PMCs could be the new peacemakers. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie tesis evalueer en ondersoek die funksionering van Privaat Militêre Maatskappye (PMM’e) en hul werksaamhede in Afrika. Die PMM-verskynsel het voortgespruit uit die stilstand van die Koue Oorlog. Die tesis fokus op die relevante internasionale en nasionale wetgewing rakende PMM’e wat aktief in een of ander formaat by militêre operasies betrokke is. Hierdie PMM-operasies het ’n beduidende strategiese impak op die sosio-politiese, ekonomiese en sekuriteitareas van die gebiede waartoe hul gekontrakteer is. Die doel van die tesis is om die effektiwiteit en koste-effektiwiteit van PMM’e te evalueer, asook om uit te vind of hulle aanspreeklik is en aan wie hulle verantwoording moet doen. Daar is ook gefokus op huidige wetgewing (internasionaal sowel as nasionaal) rakende PMM’e om die doeltreffendheid van sodanige wetgewing te bepaal. Hierdie tesis is ‘n opname van beskrywende en vergelykende literatuurstudies, relevant tot die doel van die tesis. Inligting is kwalitatief aangewend. Geen empiriese navorsing is onderneem nie. Hierdie tesis is ook nie gebaseer op ‘n meningsopname nie. Geen vraelyste is ingevul nie, maar daar is wel onderhoude met kenners van die betrokke vakgebied gevoer. Die tesis fokus op die vroeëre werksaamhede van die ontbinde “Executive Outcomes” as Suid-Afrikaanse PMM wat aktief betrokke was by oorlogvoering in Angola en Sierra Leone en ook op die steeds aktiewe Amerikaanse PMM “Military Professional Resources Incorporated” wat in Ekwatoriaal Guinieë werksaam is en wat nie aktief by oorlogvoering betrokke raak nie. Die tesis kom tot die gevolgtrekking dat PMM-kontrakte wat bekom word deur legitieme regeringskontrakte op internasionale vlak wel legitiem is. Daar is bevind dat wetgewing (internasionaal en nasionaal, waar wel beskikbaar) rakende PMM’e egter nie voldoende en effektief is nie. Daar is steeds baie grys areas rakende verantwoordbaarheid en wetgewing van PMM’e. Dit is in hierdie grys areas waarin baie PMM’e funksioneer en waardeur hulle onaanvaarbaar vir die internasionale gemeenskap in die huidige klimaat is. Doeltreffende wetgewing kan moontlik verseker dat PMM’e die nuwe vredemakers kan word.

Thesis (M.A.)--Naval Postgraduate School, 2000. / Title from title screen (viewed Aug. 20, 2003). "December 2000." Includes bibliographical references. Also issued in paper format.

Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited. / MBA Professional Report / Over the years, the United Nations' (UN) peacekeeping operations have increased significantly. When a crisis develops, the UN is expected to respond. It examines the overall situation in order to assess the political and military goals, required composition of force, equipment, training, financial implications, circumstances of deployment and effectiveness of the peacekeeping operation required. The UN does not have any permanent force structure; it is dependent on its member States for contribution of forces, though the equipment may or may not be provided by the troops' contributing countries. The UN has a standard procedure for acquiring peacekeeping operations/services. The process is a contract between the UNDPKO and the troops' contributing countries. Though there are similarities betweeen UN-followed contract management process and the generaly accepted contract management process identified in the contract management body of knowledge, there are many differences as well. The purpose of this study is both to evaluate the existing UN contract management process being followed to acquire peacekeeping operations/services from various troops' contributing countries against the generally accepted contract management process identified in the contract management body of knowledge as well as to evaluate the effectiveness of the UN contract management process maturity so as to assess the effectiveness of the UN contract management process for obtaining peacekeeping operations/services from troops' contributing countries.

[pt] A dissertação presente tem como tema os casos de abuso e exploração sexual (AES) cometidos por militares em operações de paz da ONU. Na década de 90, com o aumento das funções exercidas, e, consequentemente, do número de tropas empregadas, as denúncias de má-conduta sexual tornam-se, em várias missões das Nações Unidas, cada vez mais numerosas. A situação de pobreza extrema e de vulnerabilidade em que se encontram a maioria das mulheres e meninas dos países-hospedeiros, a sensação de impunidade e a grande disparidade de recursos entre militares e habitantes locais têm como consequência uma série de relações sexuais explorativas, que vão desde o envolvimento com prostitutas à formação de relacionamentos mais duradouros. Tais interações sexuais têm uma série de consequências negativas não só para as vítimas, mas também para a credibilidade da missão e da própria ONU. Após anos de inércia institucional, o tema ganha, em 2002, espaço relevante nas políticas da Organização, que introduz diversas medidas em combate ao AES. Tais políticas, no entanto, têm efetividade limitada frente às imunidades dadas a militares e civis em missões de paz. Em face dos entraves das medidas punitivas, a pesquisa tem por objetivo verificar a hipótese de que o treinamento sobre AES implementado nos países contribuintes de tropas possa ser uma ferramenta eficiente na diminuição de tais casos. Para isso, analisaremos os treinamentos ministrados no Exército e na Marinha do Brasil - principal país contribuinte de tropas para a Missão de Estabilização das Nações Unidas no Haiti (MINUSTAH)- e no Exército da Índia - o maior fornecedor de militares para a Missão das Nações Unidas na República Democrática do Congo (MONUC). / [en] The present thesis focuses on sexual abuse and exploitation (SEA) committed by members of the military components of United Nations peacekeeping operations. In the 1990s, with the increase of the tasks exercised by, and the number of troops in peacekeeping operations cases of SEA became ever more numerous. The extreme poverty and vulnerability from which most of the women and girls in peacekeeping host countries find themselves, the impunity of UN soldiers and the huge disparity between their resources and those of local populations has as a consequence a number of forms of exploitative sexual relationships, that go from the use of prostitutes to more longterm arrangements. Such sexual interactions have a series of negative consequences not only for the victims, but also for the credibility of UN missions and of the Organization itself. After years of institutional inertia, the subject eventually gained some profile within UN policy, with the introduction of a series of measures to combat SEA. Nevertheless, these policies have shown limited effectiveness faced with the immunity granted to the soldiers in question. Given these limitations, the research upon which this thesis is based has as a goal the verification of the hypothesis that the training on SEA implemented in the troop-contributing countries can be an effective tool in combating these crimes. To do so, it analyzes the training implemented in Brazil s Army and Navy- which furnish the lead contingent of the United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti (MINUSTAH), and in the Indian Army - the main troop contributing country to the United Nations Mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo (MONUC).

In recent years, some scholars have turned their attention towards the problem of multiple simultaneous peace operations (MSPOs), but with little focus on state motivations for their initiation. This thesis examines the case of the conflict in Mali and the high amount of operations deployed there by different actors. It does so through an instrumental case study of the establishment of these operations and of the French role in this process. The thesis finds that France was at first eager to deal with the conflict by supporting regional actors, but with the crisis deteriorating, becoming ever more involved. Next to its own intervention, it led various international organizations to operate alongside it in order to share the conflict management burden while remaining critically influential and securing its goals. This approach allowed France to balance the interests of its domestic audience, western allies, as well as those of the governments in the region. Based on the analysis, the thesis suggests that the proclaimed logic of division of labor between different organizations deploying MSPOs might be a justification for primarily generating as much resources as available while reducing various kinds of costs, although without any explicit evidence for it being a conscious effort of using the...

Thesis (MPhil (Political Science))--University of Stellenbosch, 2009. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This thesis examines the prospects of an effective African peacekeeping capability in light of the developing peace and security architecture of the relatively new continental body, the African Union (AU). The primary aim is to determine the nature and severity of those challenges that currently face the organization’s ambition of realizing this Pan-African dream. This study is a qualitative analysis that comprises both descriptive and exploratory aspects. The thesis begins by discussing the development of peacekeeping in conflict management. It establishes that peacekeeping emerged as an ad hoc response by the UN to address the growing issue of inter-state conflict during the Cold War, but has evolved into one of the primary tools used by the international community to manage complex crises. The advent of new security threats in the post-Cold War era, spurred on by the dynamic process of globalization, necessitated that peacekeeping adapt and is commonly perceived in contemporary discourse as a multidimensional practice. Central to this development was the shift in focus from international to human security and the recent development of the Responsibility to Protect doctrine. The study then goes on to explore the process that has ultimately led to the establishment of the AU’s proposed peacekeeping capability, the African Standby Force (ASF). With a dramatic increase in incidences of violent conflict across the globe in the 1990s, the UN’s limited resources were pushed to the limit, thus paving the way for regional organizations to play a more important role in ensuring international peace and security. The establishment of the AU in 2002 was meant to put to bed the inability of its forerunner, the Organization of African Unity (OAU), which had suffered from limited financial, logistical and structural competence, while its political and institutional authority was hampered by dissent and the qualified support of member states. However, as the African Union Mission in the Darfur region of Sudan (AMIS), highlights, the AU’s peacekeeping capacity is hamstrung by a lack of political will on the part of African leaders, weak institutional capacity, severe financial constraints as well as an overly militaristic approach that neglects the essential multidimensional nature of peacekeeping. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die tesis ondersoek die vooruitsigte van ‘n effektiewe Afrika vrede-bewaringsmag, binne die konteks van die huidige Afrika Unie (AU) se raamwerk vir vrede en sekuriteit. Die primêre navorsingsdoel is om vas te stel wat die AU se belangrikste uitdagings is, om die die strewe na Pan-Afrikanisme te bewerkstellig in die area van vrede-instandhouding op die kontinent. Eerstens word ‘n oorsig gegee oor die ontwikkeling van vrede-instandhouding binne die konteks van konflikbestuur. Die afleiding word gemaak dat vrede-instandhouding ontstaan het as ‘n ad hoc proses binne die Verenigde Nasies ten einde inter-staat konflik tydens die Koue Oorlog, te besleg. Dit is later binne die internasionale gemeenskap aanvaar as die primêre strategie vir die oplossing en hantering van internasionale konflik. Na die einde van die Koue Oorlog, en tesame met die dinamiese proses van globalisering, het vredeinstandhouding egter verder ontwikkel en ’n multi-dimensionele proses geword. Hierdie ontwikkeling is hoofsaaklik gekenmerk deur ’n fokus wat wegbeweeg het van tradisionele soewereiniteits-sekuriteit na menslike sekuriteit. Dit het gepaardgegaan met die gelyktydige ontwikkeling van die Verantwoordelikheid om te Beskerm doktrine. Die studie ondersoek verder die prosesse wat bygedra het tot die AU se voorgestelde vredesmag – die Afrika Bystandsmag (ASF). As gevolg van ’n toename in internasionale konflik tydens die 1990s is die Verenigde Nasies se vermoeëns tot die uiterste beproef. Dit het die weg gebaan vir die opkoms van kontinentale en streeks-organisasies om ‘n meer prominente rol te speel in internasional vrede-instandhouding en sekuriteit. Die stigting van die AU in 2002, was veronderstel om die finansiële, logistieke en strukturele tekortkominge van sy voorganger, die Unie vir Afrika Eenheid (OAU) aan te spreek, aangesien laasgenoemde se politieke en institusionele hoedanigheid ondermyn is deur sy lidlande. Daar word bevind – met behulp van ’n gevalle-studie analise van die AU se Sending na Soedan (AMIS) dat die AU se kapasiteit nie na wense is nie, as gevolg van die gebrek aan samewerking tussen leiers, finansiële tekortkominge en ’n neiging om militaristiese benadering te volg, ten koste van die multi-dimensionele aspek van vredes-instandhouding.

Approved for public release; distribution in unlimited. / Natural as well as man-made disasters have become commonalities of daily life in recent decades for a large portion of the world's population. This growing trend reflects the worldwide proliferation in recent years of Complex Humanitarian Emergencies (CHEs) and peace operations. Humanitarian emergencies and peace operations are a complex mix of related activities that require the combined efforts of the UN, military, International Organizations (IOs) and Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs). Given the nature and similarities of their missions, there is an ongoing need for these organizations to have access to accurate, current, and comprehensive information about field conditions and each other's movements. In several of the CHEs and peacekeeping operations of recent years, a recurring problem has been poor communication due to inadequate equipment, non-compatibility of equipment and a non-standardized communications infrastructure. This thesis explores the impact and possible benefits that wireless technology can provide to help bridge the communication gap that exists among the UN and the NGOs who participate in CHEs and peacekeeping operations. / Lieutenant Commander, Supply Corps, United States Navy / Lieutenant, United States Navy

Thesis advisor: Timothy W. Crawford / Following the devastation UN peacekeeping experienced in the 1990s, the United Nations Panel on Peace Operations wrote a report, known as the Brahimi Report, that contained twenty key recommendations as how to make peacekeeping more effective and efficient. These recommendations addressed certain fundamental flaws in peacekeeping practices and procedures. This paper discusses the purpose behind several key recommendations and examines the political and internal debate surrounding their implementation. It addresses the effect of the Brahimi Report on UN reform and concludes that the Brahimi Report has spurred a long needed examination of peacekeeping and has influenced progress in most areas, even though most of the actual suggestions of the Panel were not followed. / Thesis (BA) — Boston College, 2004. / Submitted to: Boston College. College of Arts and Sciences. / Discipline: Political Science. / Discipline: College Honors Program.

O objetivo deste estudo exploratório descritivo é analisar a atuação das tropas brasileiras em operações de manutenção da paz empreendidas pela ONU sob a ótica dos parâmetros de excelência identificados nos relatórios oficiais emitidos pela Organização e na literatura existente sobre o tema. O estudo inclui uma extensa pesquisa bibliográfica e documental que culminou na seleção de parâmetros de excelência os quais serviram de base para realizar a análise. Os dados foram coletados por meio de pesquisa bibliográfica e documental e de entrevistas estruturadas e analisados segundo técnicas de análise de conteúdo (categorização e validação). Os resultados mostram que as tropas brasileiras atuam em consonância com os parâmetros de excelência estabelecidos pela ONU e encontrados na literatura, ainda que tenham sido identificados alguns pontos passíveis de melhoria, o que demonstra o bom desempenho da atuação dos militares brasileiros em operações de manutenção da paz. / The target of this descriptive exploratory study is to analyze the performance of the Brazilian troops in United Nations\' Peacekeeping Operations according to the performance standards identified in the Organizations\' official reports and in the existing literature about the subject. This study includes a wide bibliographical and documental research that allowed to select performance standards that were used as reference to conduct the analysis. The data were collected through bibliographical and documental research and also through structured interviews and were analyzed according to content analysis techniques (categorization and validation). The results show that the Brazilian troops perform according to the performance standards established by the UN and found in the literature, although there have been identified a few points that could be improved, which demonstrates the good performance of the Brazilian troops in Peacekeeping Operations.