O trabalho foi conduzido com uvas Cabernet Sauvignon do distrito de Pinto Bandeira, Bento Gonçalves, RS. Essa cultivar se destaca no Brasil pela produção de vinhos tintos de guarda, tendo-se adaptado relativamente bem na Serra Gaúcha. Como outras cultivares tintas, possue, em determinadas safras, dificuldades para obtenção de uma adequada maturação, dificultando a elaboração de vinhos com boa estrutura. Dentre as estratégias adotadas para minimizar esse problema, está a adoção de um adequado manejo do vinhedo e acompanhamento da maturação, aliados a operações enológicas, como controles na maceração e uso de insumos enológicos. Em função desse contexto objetivou-se estudar a aplicação de taninos enológicos e goma arábica para avaliar este uso na composição físico-química e qualidade sensorial do vinho Cabernet Sauvignon. Na safra 2004 foram usados taninos de quebracho e de castanheira, aplicados em três dosagens (5,0 g.hl-1 , 10,0 g.hL-1, 20,0 g.hl-1 ), e em três momentos de aplicação (maceração, 02 dias após o esmagamento; descuba, 08 dias após o esmagamento; após a fermentação malolática, 04 meses após o esmagamento). Na safra 2005 aplicaram-se os taninos de quebracho, de castanheira e de acácia negra, todos na dosagem de 10,0 g.hl-1 , aplicados na maceração. Ainda nessa safra, os vinhos foram tratados com quatro dosagens de goma arábica (0,0 g.L-1 , 1 ,O g.L-1 , 2,0 g.L-1 e 3,0 g.L-1 ) no ato do engarrafamento. Na safra 2006 aplicaram-se os três taninos testados na safra 2005, todos na dosagem de 20,0 g.hl-1 , durante a maceração, e mais um "pool" de quatro taninos (casca de uva, semente de uva, quebracho, carvalho), na dosagem de 10,0 IPT (Índice de Polifenóis Totais), durante a maceração e no vinho estabilizado. Ainda se testaram duas dosagens de goma arábica (0,0 g.L-1 e 3,0 g.L-1 ), aplicadas no momento do engarrafamento. Nos vinhos estabilizados, realizaram-se as análises físico-químicas clássicas, mais características cromáticas e polifenóis, além de uma análise sensorial detalhada. Em função das boas condições meteorológicas apresentadas nas safras estudadas, que levaram à obtenção de uvas de boa qualidade, no que conceme às características físico-químicas clássicas, de modo geral, se verificou que a adição dos taninos teve pouca influência na composição do vinho. Aquelas variáveis que seriam, hipoteticamente, mais influenciáveis, como antocianinas e índices de cor, mostraram, da mesma forma, poucas mudanças significativas. A goma arábica influenciou uma série de características, denotando que sua utilização afeta de maneira mais significativa a composição do vinho. Na análise sensorial, principalmente o perfil aromático dos vinhos foi influenciado pelo uso dos taninos enológicos, especialmente quando aplicados na maceração. Assim, parece ser prudente inferir que o uso associado de taninos de origens diversas, contribuiu de maneira mais efetiva para a qualidade final dos vinhos. A goma arábica, por sua vez, manteve a tendência de influir positivamente na qualidade gustativa dos vinhos, em especial no aumento da maciez e redução da adstringência. Mesmo que parcialmente, em função das diferentes safras, comprovou-se a expectativa que os taninos enológicos contribuem para aumentar a capacidade antioxidante dos vinhos. / The study was performed with Cabemet Sauvignon grapes from the Pinto Bandeira district, Bento Gonçalves, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, a cultivar known throughout the country for the production of cellaring red wine which adapted fairly well to the Serra Gaucha region. Like other red wine vines, there can be obstacles to proper maturation in certain harvests, which can curtail the production of well-structured wines. Among the strategies adopted to minimize the problem are using correct vineyard management and monitoring the maturation process, as well as enological operations such as contrais in maceration and the use of enological inputs. This situation has led to the study of the application of enological tannins and gum arabic to assess their use in the physicochemical composition and sensory properties of Cabernet Sauvignon wine. Quebracho and chestnut tannins were used in the 2004 harvest in three different dosages (5.0 g.hL-1, 10.0 g.hL-1, 20.0 g.hl-1 ) and at three different moments (maceration, 02 days after crushing; devatting, 08 days after crushing; after malolactic fermentation, 04 months after crushing). Quebracho, chestnut and black green-wattle acacia tannins were applied to the 2005 harvest, at 10.0 g.hL-1 dosages, ali during maceration . Wines from the same vintage were also treated with four dosages of gum arabic (0.0 g.L-1 , 1.0 g.L-1 , 2.0 g.L-1 and 3.0 g.L-1 ) at bottling. Three tannins tested on the 2005 harvest were applied to the 2006 one, ali at 20.0 g.hl-1 dosages during maceration, as well as a pool of four tannins (grape skins, grape pips, quebracho, oak) at dosages of 10.0 TPI (Total Polyphenollndex) during maceration and to the stabilized wine. Two gum arabic dosages were also tested (0.0 g.L-1 and 3.0 g.L-1 ), applied at bottling. The classical physicochemical analyses were performed on stabilized wines as well as chromatic characteristics, polyphenols and detailed sensory analysis. Due to the good weather conditions of the vintages studied, which led to the harvest of quality grapes regarding the classical physicochemical characteristics, tannin addition had little overall influence on wine composition. Those variables that would, hypothetically, be the most affected by their addition, such as anthocyanines and colar indexes, did not have significant changes either. Gum arabic influenced several characteristics, which shows that their use has more significant effects on wine composition. In sensory analysis, enological tannins primarily affected the aromatic profile of the wines, especially when applied in the maceration, so it seems safe to inter that the concomitant use of tannins from various origins contributed effectively to the final quality of the wines. Gum arabic, in turn, continued to have a positive effect on the palate of the wines, especially by increasing their softness and decreasing their astringency. The hypothesis that enological tannins contribute to the increase in antioxidant capacity in wines proved correct, even if only partially so due to the different harvests.

O trabalho foi conduzido com uvas Cabernet Sauvignon do distrito de Pinto Bandeira, Bento Gonçalves, RS. Essa cultivar se destaca no Brasil pela produção de vinhos tintos de guarda, tendo-se adaptado relativamente bem na Serra Gaúcha. Como outras cultivares tintas, possue, em determinadas safras, dificuldades para obtenção de uma adequada maturação, dificultando a elaboração de vinhos com boa estrutura. Dentre as estratégias adotadas para minimizar esse problema, está a adoção de um adequado manejo do vinhedo e acompanhamento da maturação, aliados a operações enológicas, como controles na maceração e uso de insumos enológicos. Em função desse contexto objetivou-se estudar a aplicação de taninos enológicos e goma arábica para avaliar este uso na composição físico-química e qualidade sensorial do vinho Cabernet Sauvignon. Na safra 2004 foram usados taninos de quebracho e de castanheira, aplicados em três dosagens (5,0 g.hl-1 , 10,0 g.hL-1, 20,0 g.hl-1 ), e em três momentos de aplicação (maceração, 02 dias após o esmagamento; descuba, 08 dias após o esmagamento; após a fermentação malolática, 04 meses após o esmagamento). Na safra 2005 aplicaram-se os taninos de quebracho, de castanheira e de acácia negra, todos na dosagem de 10,0 g.hl-1 , aplicados na maceração. Ainda nessa safra, os vinhos foram tratados com quatro dosagens de goma arábica (0,0 g.L-1 , 1 ,O g.L-1 , 2,0 g.L-1 e 3,0 g.L-1 ) no ato do engarrafamento. Na safra 2006 aplicaram-se os três taninos testados na safra 2005, todos na dosagem de 20,0 g.hl-1 , durante a maceração, e mais um "pool" de quatro taninos (casca de uva, semente de uva, quebracho, carvalho), na dosagem de 10,0 IPT (Índice de Polifenóis Totais), durante a maceração e no vinho estabilizado. Ainda se testaram duas dosagens de goma arábica (0,0 g.L-1 e 3,0 g.L-1 ), aplicadas no momento do engarrafamento. Nos vinhos estabilizados, realizaram-se as análises físico-químicas clássicas, mais características cromáticas e polifenóis, além de uma análise sensorial detalhada. Em função das boas condições meteorológicas apresentadas nas safras estudadas, que levaram à obtenção de uvas de boa qualidade, no que conceme às características físico-químicas clássicas, de modo geral, se verificou que a adição dos taninos teve pouca influência na composição do vinho. Aquelas variáveis que seriam, hipoteticamente, mais influenciáveis, como antocianinas e índices de cor, mostraram, da mesma forma, poucas mudanças significativas. A goma arábica influenciou uma série de características, denotando que sua utilização afeta de maneira mais significativa a composição do vinho. Na análise sensorial, principalmente o perfil aromático dos vinhos foi influenciado pelo uso dos taninos enológicos, especialmente quando aplicados na maceração. Assim, parece ser prudente inferir que o uso associado de taninos de origens diversas, contribuiu de maneira mais efetiva para a qualidade final dos vinhos. A goma arábica, por sua vez, manteve a tendência de influir positivamente na qualidade gustativa dos vinhos, em especial no aumento da maciez e redução da adstringência. Mesmo que parcialmente, em função das diferentes safras, comprovou-se a expectativa que os taninos enológicos contribuem para aumentar a capacidade antioxidante dos vinhos. / The study was performed with Cabemet Sauvignon grapes from the Pinto Bandeira district, Bento Gonçalves, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, a cultivar known throughout the country for the production of cellaring red wine which adapted fairly well to the Serra Gaucha region. Like other red wine vines, there can be obstacles to proper maturation in certain harvests, which can curtail the production of well-structured wines. Among the strategies adopted to minimize the problem are using correct vineyard management and monitoring the maturation process, as well as enological operations such as contrais in maceration and the use of enological inputs. This situation has led to the study of the application of enological tannins and gum arabic to assess their use in the physicochemical composition and sensory properties of Cabernet Sauvignon wine. Quebracho and chestnut tannins were used in the 2004 harvest in three different dosages (5.0 g.hL-1, 10.0 g.hL-1, 20.0 g.hl-1 ) and at three different moments (maceration, 02 days after crushing; devatting, 08 days after crushing; after malolactic fermentation, 04 months after crushing). Quebracho, chestnut and black green-wattle acacia tannins were applied to the 2005 harvest, at 10.0 g.hL-1 dosages, ali during maceration . Wines from the same vintage were also treated with four dosages of gum arabic (0.0 g.L-1 , 1.0 g.L-1 , 2.0 g.L-1 and 3.0 g.L-1 ) at bottling. Three tannins tested on the 2005 harvest were applied to the 2006 one, ali at 20.0 g.hl-1 dosages during maceration, as well as a pool of four tannins (grape skins, grape pips, quebracho, oak) at dosages of 10.0 TPI (Total Polyphenollndex) during maceration and to the stabilized wine. Two gum arabic dosages were also tested (0.0 g.L-1 and 3.0 g.L-1 ), applied at bottling. The classical physicochemical analyses were performed on stabilized wines as well as chromatic characteristics, polyphenols and detailed sensory analysis. Due to the good weather conditions of the vintages studied, which led to the harvest of quality grapes regarding the classical physicochemical characteristics, tannin addition had little overall influence on wine composition. Those variables that would, hypothetically, be the most affected by their addition, such as anthocyanines and colar indexes, did not have significant changes either. Gum arabic influenced several characteristics, which shows that their use has more significant effects on wine composition. In sensory analysis, enological tannins primarily affected the aromatic profile of the wines, especially when applied in the maceration, so it seems safe to inter that the concomitant use of tannins from various origins contributed effectively to the final quality of the wines. Gum arabic, in turn, continued to have a positive effect on the palate of the wines, especially by increasing their softness and decreasing their astringency. The hypothesis that enological tannins contribute to the increase in antioxidant capacity in wines proved correct, even if only partially so due to the different harvests.

O trabalho foi conduzido com uvas Cabernet Sauvignon do distrito de Pinto Bandeira, Bento Gonçalves, RS. Essa cultivar se destaca no Brasil pela produção de vinhos tintos de guarda, tendo-se adaptado relativamente bem na Serra Gaúcha. Como outras cultivares tintas, possue, em determinadas safras, dificuldades para obtenção de uma adequada maturação, dificultando a elaboração de vinhos com boa estrutura. Dentre as estratégias adotadas para minimizar esse problema, está a adoção de um adequado manejo do vinhedo e acompanhamento da maturação, aliados a operações enológicas, como controles na maceração e uso de insumos enológicos. Em função desse contexto objetivou-se estudar a aplicação de taninos enológicos e goma arábica para avaliar este uso na composição físico-química e qualidade sensorial do vinho Cabernet Sauvignon. Na safra 2004 foram usados taninos de quebracho e de castanheira, aplicados em três dosagens (5,0 g.hl-1 , 10,0 g.hL-1, 20,0 g.hl-1 ), e em três momentos de aplicação (maceração, 02 dias após o esmagamento; descuba, 08 dias após o esmagamento; após a fermentação malolática, 04 meses após o esmagamento). Na safra 2005 aplicaram-se os taninos de quebracho, de castanheira e de acácia negra, todos na dosagem de 10,0 g.hl-1 , aplicados na maceração. Ainda nessa safra, os vinhos foram tratados com quatro dosagens de goma arábica (0,0 g.L-1 , 1 ,O g.L-1 , 2,0 g.L-1 e 3,0 g.L-1 ) no ato do engarrafamento. Na safra 2006 aplicaram-se os três taninos testados na safra 2005, todos na dosagem de 20,0 g.hl-1 , durante a maceração, e mais um "pool" de quatro taninos (casca de uva, semente de uva, quebracho, carvalho), na dosagem de 10,0 IPT (Índice de Polifenóis Totais), durante a maceração e no vinho estabilizado. Ainda se testaram duas dosagens de goma arábica (0,0 g.L-1 e 3,0 g.L-1 ), aplicadas no momento do engarrafamento. Nos vinhos estabilizados, realizaram-se as análises físico-químicas clássicas, mais características cromáticas e polifenóis, além de uma análise sensorial detalhada. Em função das boas condições meteorológicas apresentadas nas safras estudadas, que levaram à obtenção de uvas de boa qualidade, no que conceme às características físico-químicas clássicas, de modo geral, se verificou que a adição dos taninos teve pouca influência na composição do vinho. Aquelas variáveis que seriam, hipoteticamente, mais influenciáveis, como antocianinas e índices de cor, mostraram, da mesma forma, poucas mudanças significativas. A goma arábica influenciou uma série de características, denotando que sua utilização afeta de maneira mais significativa a composição do vinho. Na análise sensorial, principalmente o perfil aromático dos vinhos foi influenciado pelo uso dos taninos enológicos, especialmente quando aplicados na maceração. Assim, parece ser prudente inferir que o uso associado de taninos de origens diversas, contribuiu de maneira mais efetiva para a qualidade final dos vinhos. A goma arábica, por sua vez, manteve a tendência de influir positivamente na qualidade gustativa dos vinhos, em especial no aumento da maciez e redução da adstringência. Mesmo que parcialmente, em função das diferentes safras, comprovou-se a expectativa que os taninos enológicos contribuem para aumentar a capacidade antioxidante dos vinhos. / The study was performed with Cabemet Sauvignon grapes from the Pinto Bandeira district, Bento Gonçalves, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, a cultivar known throughout the country for the production of cellaring red wine which adapted fairly well to the Serra Gaucha region. Like other red wine vines, there can be obstacles to proper maturation in certain harvests, which can curtail the production of well-structured wines. Among the strategies adopted to minimize the problem are using correct vineyard management and monitoring the maturation process, as well as enological operations such as contrais in maceration and the use of enological inputs. This situation has led to the study of the application of enological tannins and gum arabic to assess their use in the physicochemical composition and sensory properties of Cabernet Sauvignon wine. Quebracho and chestnut tannins were used in the 2004 harvest in three different dosages (5.0 g.hL-1, 10.0 g.hL-1, 20.0 g.hl-1 ) and at three different moments (maceration, 02 days after crushing; devatting, 08 days after crushing; after malolactic fermentation, 04 months after crushing). Quebracho, chestnut and black green-wattle acacia tannins were applied to the 2005 harvest, at 10.0 g.hL-1 dosages, ali during maceration . Wines from the same vintage were also treated with four dosages of gum arabic (0.0 g.L-1 , 1.0 g.L-1 , 2.0 g.L-1 and 3.0 g.L-1 ) at bottling. Three tannins tested on the 2005 harvest were applied to the 2006 one, ali at 20.0 g.hl-1 dosages during maceration, as well as a pool of four tannins (grape skins, grape pips, quebracho, oak) at dosages of 10.0 TPI (Total Polyphenollndex) during maceration and to the stabilized wine. Two gum arabic dosages were also tested (0.0 g.L-1 and 3.0 g.L-1 ), applied at bottling. The classical physicochemical analyses were performed on stabilized wines as well as chromatic characteristics, polyphenols and detailed sensory analysis. Due to the good weather conditions of the vintages studied, which led to the harvest of quality grapes regarding the classical physicochemical characteristics, tannin addition had little overall influence on wine composition. Those variables that would, hypothetically, be the most affected by their addition, such as anthocyanines and colar indexes, did not have significant changes either. Gum arabic influenced several characteristics, which shows that their use has more significant effects on wine composition. In sensory analysis, enological tannins primarily affected the aromatic profile of the wines, especially when applied in the maceration, so it seems safe to inter that the concomitant use of tannins from various origins contributed effectively to the final quality of the wines. Gum arabic, in turn, continued to have a positive effect on the palate of the wines, especially by increasing their softness and decreasing their astringency. The hypothesis that enological tannins contribute to the increase in antioxidant capacity in wines proved correct, even if only partially so due to the different harvests.

Parmi les métabolites secondaires impliqués dans la qualité du raisin et du vin, les tanins condensés ou proanthocyanidines (PAs) jouent un rôle majeur, en particulier dans l'astringence et la stabilité de la couleur du vin. Ces molécules sont également impliquées dans la défense des plantes contre des stress biotiques et abiotiques. En outre, les effets bénéfiques des PAs pour la santé humaine sont bien documentés. Les PAs de la vigne ont la particularité d’être estérifiées avec de l’acide gallique. Une réaction d’acylation appelée galloylation est responsable de cette modification. Les études montrent que la galloylation influence les propriétés œnologiques et pharmacologiques des PAs. Dans la baie de raisin, les PAs sont synthétisés dans les premiers stades de développement, principalement dans les pellicules et les pépins. Un nombre relativement faible d'étapes enzymatiques sont nécessaires pour la biosynthèse de la structure de base de ces métabolites et les gènes correspondants sont aujourd'hui largement connus chez les plantes modèles, y compris chez la vigne. Cependant, les mécanismes moléculaires impliqués dans les étapes finales, y compris la galloylation, ne sont encore que partiellement connus. Des résultats antérieurs obtenus après la recherche de QTL influençant la composition du raisin, et en particulier le taux de galloylation des PAs, et des études transcriptomiques après surexpression de facteurs de transcription régulant la biosynthèse de la voie des PAs, ont permis l'identification de gènes potentiellement impliqués dans ces étapes. Des gènes de shikimate déshydrogénase (SDH) ont été identifiés. Ces gènes interviendraient en amont, pour la biosynthèse de l'acide gallique. Trois glucosyltransférases ainsi identifiées et déjà caractérisées au laboratoire sont impliquées dans la biosynthèse de l'ester de glucose de l'acide gallique (β-glucogalline), qui servirait d'intermédiaire pour la galloylation des PAs. Ces méthodes de criblage ont également permis d’identifier 2 acyltransférases de type sérine carboxypeptidase, nommées glucose acyltransférases (GATs) qui seraient capables de catalyser la dernière étape de galloylation: le transfert de l'acide gallique depuis la β-glucogalline sur les PAs. Le premier objectif de cette thèse a été de déterminer la fonction des SDHs codées par les gènes de vigne. Certaines SDHs recombinantes produites de façon hétérologue chez E.coli ont la capacité à produire de l'acide gallique in vitro. Leur niveau d’expression au cours du développement et dans différents tissus de la baie a également été établi. Les résultats obtenus in vitro sont étayés par le profil métabolique (acide gallique, β-glucogalline et PAs) de hairy-roots de vigne transformées avec un gène de SDH. Le second objectif de cette thèse a été de valider la fonction des GATs par expression transitoire dans des feuilles de tabac et des tests enzymatiques in vitro. La transformation transitoire de feuilles de vigne avec les GATs a permis de moduler la concentration d’esters phénoliques et nomment des flavan-3-ols galloylés in planta. L’étude de ces gènes a été étendue aux plantes vasculaires par des analyses phylogénétiques et a permis d’identifier des motifs peptidiques potentiellement impliqués dans les mécanismes étudiés et reflétant la sub-fonctionnalisation de certains gènes. Ce travail a fourni des informations sur les bases génétiques et les mécanismes moléculaires impliqués dans la biosynthèse de l'acide gallique et son transfert en deux étapes sur les flavan-3-ols (galloylation). De nouvelles hypothèses sur l'intervention de différents transporteurs et la nature des molécules transportées pourront être formulées. / Among the secondary metabolites involved in grape berry and wine quality, condensed tannins or proanthocyanidins (PAs) play a major role, especially in astringency and color stability of wine. These molecules are also involved in plant defence against biotic and abiotic stresses. Furthermore, the beneficial effects of PAs to human health are well documented. In grapevine, PAs have the distinctive feature of being esterified with gallic acid. An acylation reaction called galloylation is responsible for this modification. Studies show that the galloylation influences oenological and pharmacological properties of PAs. In the grape berry, PAs are synthesized in the early stages of development, mainly in skin and seeds. A relatively small number of enzymatic steps are required for the biosynthesis of the basic structure of these metabolites and the corresponding genes are now widely known in model plants, including in grapevine. However, the molecular mechanisms involved in the final steps, including galloylation, are only partially known. Earlier results obtained after the search of QTL influencing the composition of the grape berry, especially the galloylation ratio of PAs, and transcriptomic studies after overexpression of transcription factors that regulate PAs biosynthesis pathway, have allowed the identification of genes potentially involved in these steps. Shikimate dehydrogenase (SDH) genes were identified. These genes would intervene upstream, for the biosynthesis of gallic acid. Three identified glucosyltransferases, already characterized in the laboratory, are involved in the biosynthesis of glucose ester of gallic acid (β-glucogalline), which could serve as an intermediary for PAs galloylation. These screening methods have also helped to identify 2 serine carboxypeptidase-like acyltransferases, called glucose acyltransferases (GATs) which are capable of catalyzing the last step of galloylation: the transfer of gallic acid from β-glucogalline to PAs. The first objective of this thesis was to determine the function of the SDHs encoded by grapevine genes. Recombinant SDHs, produced heterologously in E. coli, have the capacity to generate gallic acid in vitro. Their level of expression during development and in different tissues of the berry was also established. In vitro results are supported by the metabolic profile (gallic acid, β-glucogallin and PAs) of grapevine hairy -roots transformed with a SDH gene. The second objective of this thesis was to validate the function of the GATs by transient expression in tobacco leaves and in vitro enzyme assays. The transient transformation of grapevine leaves with GATs allowed to modulate the concentration of phenolic esters and notably galloylated flavan-3-ols in planta. The study of these genes was extended to vascular plants by phylogenetic analyses which allowed to identify peptide motifs potentially involved in the studied mechanisms and reflecting the sub-functionalization of certain genes. This work has provided informations on the genetic basis and molecular mechanisms involved in the biosynthesis of gallic acid and its two-step transfer on flavan-3-ols (galloylation). New hypotheses on the intervention of different carriers and nature of transported molecules can be proposed.

Le contrôle combinatoire de l’ expression des gènes est une caractéristique importante du profil spatio-temporel de l'accumulation des flavonoïdes chez les plantes. Des résultats précédents avaient démontré chez Arabidopsis thaliana, que la régulation de l’accumulation des anthocyanes et des proanthocyanidines repose sur l'activité de facteurs de régulation de la transcription de type R2R3-MYB et bHLH qui forment des complexes ternaires ("MBW") avec la protéine TTG1 (WDR). L'objectif de la thèse était de caractériser les complexes MBW impliqués et leurs cibles, pour avoir une compréhension globale des mécanismes transcriptionnels qui contrôlent la biosynthèse des flavonoïdes.En utilisant différentes approches génétiques et moléculaires, nous avons montré que seuls les gènes « tardifs » (c’est à dire DFR, LDOX, BAN, TT19, TT12 et AHA10) sont des cibles directes des complexes MBW. Bien que le complexe de régulation impliquant les protéines TT2-TT8-TTG1 ait un rôle majeur dans la régulation de ces gènes structuraux dans la graine d’Arabidopsis, trois autres complexes contenant MYB5, GL3 ou EGL3 sont également impliqués de façon tissu-spécifique. Comme l’expression du gène TT8 joue un rôle clef dans ces régulations, une dissection fonctionnelle de son promoteur a été entreprise. Elle a montré la nature modulaire de ce promoteur avec deux domaines impliqués dans l’expression tissu-spécifique et un troisième dans la force du promoteur. Les résultats obtenus suggèrent également l’existence d’autres régulateurs qui restent à caractériser. Enfin, nous avons développé une nouvelle technique de caractérisation des interactions entre les facteurs de transcription et les promoteurs, basée sur l’expression transitoire dans des protoplastes de mousse (i.e. Physcomitrella patens). Nous avons ainsi pu identifier les éléments cis des promoteurs impliqués dans la régulation de l’expression de TT8 et de chacun des promoteurs cibles des complexes MBW.L’ensemble de ces travaux permet de fournir un modèle plus complet du réseau de régulations transcriptionnelles qui contrôle la biosynthèse des proanthocyanidines et des anthocyanes, ainsi que des outils et de nouvelles pistes pour poursuivre ces études chez Arabidopsis et d’autres plantes. / The combinatorial control of gene expression is a key feature of the spatio-temporal pattern of flavonoid accumulation in plants. Previous results have shown that the regulation of anthocyanins and proanthocyanidins (PAs or tannins) pigmentation relies on the transcriptional activity of R2R3-MYB and bHLH proteins that form “MBW” ternary complexes with TTG1 (WD-Repeats), in Arabidopsis thaliana. The purpose of the thesis was to figure out the nature and spatio-temporal activity of these MBW complexes and to identify their direct targets, which were essential steps toward a comprehensive understanding of the transcriptional mechanisms that control flavonoid biosynthesis. Using different molecular and genetic approaches this thesis has demonstrated that only late biosynthetic genes (namely DFR, LDOX, BAN, TT19, TT12 and AHA10) are direct targets of the MBW complexes. Interestingly, although the TT2-TT8-TTG1 complex was shown to play the major role in regulating the expression of these structural genes in developing seeds, three additional MBW complexes that contain MYB5, GL3 or EGL3 are also involved, in a tissue-specific manner. Because the expression of TT8 is largely involved in these regulations, a functional dissection of its promoter was carried out. Two modules drive the tissue-specific activity of the TT8 promoter in PA- and anthocyanin-accumulating cells, and a third module is responsible for the strength of the promoter. Interestingly, this regulation involves at least six different MBW complexes. Our results also suggest that some putative new regulators remain to be discovered. Last, use of a newly developed fast and sensitive transient expression system that relies on protoplasts of the moss Physcomitrella patens has allowed the identification of both, specific cis-regulatory elements through which TT8 expression is regulated and the minimal promoter for each of the genes that are targeted by the MBW complexes.Altogether, by answering fundamental questions and by demonstrating or invalidating previously made hypotheses, we have provided a new and comprehensive view of the regulatory mechanisms controlling PA and anthocyanin biosynthesis in Arabidopsis, as well as new clues and tools for further investigation of this pathway in Arabidopsis and other plant species.

Le rôle crucial du tractus gastrointestinal dans la pathogenèse et la pathophysiologie des troubles cardiométaboliques (TCM) et du syndrome métabolique (SM) est actuellement bien établi. Plusieurs facteurs, incluant le stress oxydatif (SOx), l'inflammation et la résistance à l'insuline (RI), perturbent l'homéostasie intestinale et causent des TCM. Les polyphénols (PP) ont des effets biologiques bénéfiques dans la prévention de pathologies métaboliques. Cependant, leurs mécanismes d'actions, surtout au niveau de l'axe intestin-foie, ne sont pas bien compris. Par ailleurs, malgré les nombreuses études sur les effets biologiques et la biodisponibilité des PP, il existe encore des zones d’ombres concernant les interactions entre le microbiote intestinal et les PP et les conséquences subséquentes sur la santé intestinale et métabolique. Dans ce travail de recherche, nous favorisons l’axiome selon lequel les PP, notamment ceux de grande taille moléculaire tels que les proanthocyanidines (PACs), pourraient être utile pour combattre les maladies métaboliques grâce à leurs actions antioxydante et anti-inflammatoire. Toutefois, ces actions précitées des PACs dépendraient d’une régulation en amont du microbiote intestinal. L’objectif central consiste à démontrer les effets bénéfiques des PACs dans la prévention des dérèglements métaboliques dans deux modèles distincts, l’un cellulaire et l’autre animal et d’en étudier les mécanismes. Les effets des PACs sur la RI, les dérangements métaboliques intestinaux grâce à la production de métabolites ont été étudiés. Dans une première étape, nous avons étudié les mécanismes d’actions des PACs et de l’un de leurs métabolites majeurs, le 4,5-dihydroxyphenyl valerolactone (DHPVL), dans la prévention des maladies métaboliques et dans le maintien de l’homéostasie intestinale en utilisant la lignée cellulaire intestinale Caco-2/15. Ces cellules constituent un outil de choix pour l’investigation du SOx, la défense antioxydante et l’inflammation en relation directe avec nos objectifs. Les résultats suggèrent que la capacité des PACs à augmenter la défense antioxydante et anti-inflammatoire et à améliorer l’homéostasie intestinale passeraient en partie probablement par leurs métabolites microbiens. Dans une deuxième étape, en utilisant le modèle murin C57BL6, nous avons déterminé l’impact des PACs sur l’homéostasie métabolique intestinale et hépatique, via l’atténuation du SOx et l’inflammation, le maintien de l’intégrité de la barrière intestinale, la prévention de l’endotoxémie métabolique et les modifications du profil lipidique et de la fonction du microbiote intestinal. Cette partie a évalué les aspects préventifs et thérapeutiques des PACs en spécifiant leurs bénéfices biologiques et voies mécanistiques dans des organes métaboliques clés. Pour étudier ces mécanismes et les comprendre, nous avons utilisé le modèle dysmétabolique de souris C57BL6 soumises à une diète riche en lipides et en sucrose (HFHS), servant à développer le SM et les complications cardio-métaboliques afin d’examiner l’action des PACs. Le développement de l’obésité, de la RI ainsi que la survenue d’autres altérations métaboliques ont été prévenus par l’administration de PACs. Les résultats de cette thèse permettent une meilleure compréhension des mécanismes d’actions qui sous-tendent les effets préventifs et thérapeutiques des PACs dans les désordres métaboliques, en particulier dans l’axe intestin-foie. / The crucial role of the gastrointestinal tract in the pathogenesis and pathophysiology of cardiometabolic disorders (CMD) and metabolic syndrome (MetS) is currently recognized. Several factors, including oxidative stress (OxS), inflammation and insulin resistance (IR), disrupt intestinal homeostasis and cause CMD. Polyphenols (PP) have beneficial biological effects in the prevention of metabolic pathologies. However, their mechanisms of action, especially in the gut-liver axis, are not well understood. Moreover, despite numerous studies on the biological effects and bioavailability of PP, there are still grey areas concerning the interactions between the intestinal microbiota and PP and the subsequent consequences for intestinal and metabolic health. In this research work, we promote the axiom that PP, particularly those of large molecular size such as proanthocyanidins (PACs), could be useful in combating metabolic diseases thanks to their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory actions. However, the aforementioned actions of PACs would depend on upstream regulation of the intestinal microbiota. The central objective is to demonstrate the beneficial effects of PACs in preventing metabolic disorders in two distinct models, one cellular and the other animal, and to study the mechanisms involved. The effects of PACs on IR and intestinal metabolic disturbances through metabolite production were studied. In a first step, we investigated the mechanisms of action of PACs and one of their major metabolites, 4,5-dihydroxyphenyl valerolactone (DHPVL), in the prevention of metabolic diseases and in the maintenance of intestinal homeostasis using the Caco-2/15 intestinal cell line. These cells are a tool of choice for investigating OxS, antioxidant defense and inflammation in direct relation to our objectives. The results suggest that the ability of PACs to enhance antioxidant and anti-inflammatory defense and improve intestinal homeostasis is probably partly mediated by their microbial metabolites. In a second step, using the C57BL6 mouse model, we determined the impact of PACs on intestinal and hepatic metabolic homeostasis, via attenuation of OxS and inflammation, maintenance of intestinal barrier integrity, prevention of metabolic endotoxemia and changes in lipid profile and gut microbiota function. This section assessed the preventive and therapeutic aspects of PACs, specifying their biological benefits and mechanistic pathways in key metabolic organs. To investigate and understand these mechanisms, we used the dysmetabolic model of C57BL6 mice subjected to a high-fat, high-sucrose diet (HFHS), used to develop MetS and cardio-metabolic complications to examine the action of PACs. The development of obesity, IR and other metabolic alterations was prevented by the administration of PACs. The results of this thesis provide a better understanding of the mechanisms of action underlying the preventive and therapeutic effects of PACs in metabolic disorders, particularly in the intestine-liver axis.