M.A.

The house of the Caecilii Metelli was one of ancient Rome's most prestigious yet overshadowed plebeian families. Replete with dynamic orators, successful generals, and charismatic women, the Caecilii Metelli lived during the period of Rome's great expansion. Having participated in its transformation into the principal power in the Mediterranean, they survived until the fall of the Republic. By contemporary Roman standards they were a powerful and respected family. Seventeen consulships, nine triumphs, nine members of priestly colleges—including three who became pontifex maximus—and five censors are evidence of their high position in Rome. The trappings of magisterial office and military decorations notwithstanding, the Caecilii Metelli were nevertheless often overshadowed on the stage of Roman politics by stronger personalities and did not receive substantial attention in the ancient sources. This study seeks to understand the political connections and activities of the Caecilii Metelli in Republican Rome. While attention must be given to the appropriate social and historical contexts, the focus must always remain on the individuals and their interactions with each other. Each generation of the Metellan family was involved in varying degrees in the political processes of the time. A deeper understanding of the role of the Metelli in these processes shows that the Metelli can be understood as a family of outsiders who successfully attempted to make their presence felt in Roman politics, but were ultimately doomed to fail in the collapse of the Republic. They can serve as a paradigm for understanding the struggles of aristocratic families to maintain power and influence throughout the Roman Republic.

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The presence of German immigrants - especially the German orphans of 1948, was a known phenomenon to the South African community during the 20th century. After the Second World War, South Africa’s economy developed rapidly and the skills shortage drew immigrants from all over the world. For Germans, South Africa became a prime destination. They were mostly welcomed with open arms. Many of them also played an important role in South African society. Knowledge regarding these Germans, especially those who immigrated between 1945 and 1980, is fading in the 21st century, a century of dramatic changes and challenges. It appears that very little is known with regard to the contribution these German immigrants made towards the development of South Africa and how they integrated into the South African community. Each immigrant brings his own identity, worldview and concepts of how institutions should function. They bridge national borders and entered a new society with its own identity, or in the case of South Africa, multi ethnic identities. The immigrants have to integrate and adapt to the new culture and ways, while they still retain their old cultures. In the process, they develop a new identity, a trans nationality. They influence their environment and the people they came into contact with. In the 1970‟s, it was especially the German historians who developed a new historiography, known as transnational history writing. After the Second World War, the relationships of the Germans and the French became intertwined in Europe. This necessitated a new approach to the communal coexistence of communities in a fast - changing Europe. Previously history was largely written within the context of the national state and within geographic borders. Now history was developing over national borders and people of different nations were starting to live shared lives. By making comparisons and emphasizing differences, a new theory and principles of transnationalism and trans nationality surfaced. This study approaches transnationalism from the context of a family history, with a biographical case study of a single citizen who emigrated from Germany to South Africa. The focus is on how Wolfgang Wehrmeyer was transplanted to a new country and how he developed a transnational identity. This biographical case study is incorporated into a prosopography with the personal experiences of fellow German immigrants in order to gain a comprehensive insight on trans nationality. The findings are analysed and synthesised to come to a comprehensive conclusion as to how German immigrants experienced transnationalism. The purpose of the study is to make a contribution to our knowledge of transnational historiography in South Africa, as well as to our knowledge about the German immigrants and their experiences.

The presence of German immigrants - especially the German orphans of 1948, was a known phenomenon to the South African community during the 20th century. After the Second World War, South Africa’s economy developed rapidly and the skills shortage drew immigrants from all over the world. For Germans, South Africa became a prime destination. They were mostly welcomed with open arms. Many of them also played an important role in South African society. Knowledge regarding these Germans, especially those who immigrated between 1945 and 1980, is fading in the 21st century, a century of dramatic changes and challenges. It appears that very little is known with regard to the contribution these German immigrants made towards the development of South Africa and how they integrated into the South African community. Each immigrant brings his own identity, worldview and concepts of how institutions should function. They bridge national borders and entered a new society with its own identity, or in the case of South Africa, multi ethnic identities. The immigrants have to integrate and adapt to the new culture and ways, while they still retain their old cultures. In the process, they develop a new identity, a trans nationality. They influence their environment and the people they came into contact with. In the 1970‟s, it was especially the German historians who developed a new historiography, known as transnational history writing. After the Second World War, the relationships of the Germans and the French became intertwined in Europe. This necessitated a new approach to the communal coexistence of communities in a fast - changing Europe. Previously history was largely written within the context of the national state and within geographic borders. Now history was developing over national borders and people of different nations were starting to live shared lives. By making comparisons and emphasizing differences, a new theory and principles of transnationalism and trans nationality surfaced. This study approaches transnationalism from the context of a family history, with a biographical case study of a single citizen who emigrated from Germany to South Africa. The focus is on how Wolfgang Wehrmeyer was transplanted to a new country and how he developed a transnational identity. This biographical case study is incorporated into a prosopography with the personal experiences of fellow German immigrants in order to gain a comprehensive insight on trans nationality. The findings are analysed and synthesised to come to a comprehensive conclusion as to how German immigrants experienced transnationalism. The purpose of the study is to make a contribution to our knowledge of transnational historiography in South Africa, as well as to our knowledge about the German immigrants and their experiences.

The British sporting landscape significantly altered during the nineteenth century as industrialisation affected the leisure patterns of the previously rural communities that were now residents of the urban city. As both space and time available for sport reduced, traditional pastimes continued to survive amid the numerous public houses that had emerged within, and in, the outskirts of Britain’s major industrial centres. Land attached to, and surrounding, the more rural taverns was procured for sporting purposes, with specially built stadia developed and publicans becoming gatekeepers to these working-class pursuits. Pedestrianism, the forerunner to modern athletics, became a lucrative commercial enterprise, having been successfully integrated into the urban sporting model through public house endorsement. The sporting publicans, especially within the city, used entrepreneurial vision to transform these activities into popular athletic “shows” with these professional athletes demonstrating feats of endurance, speed and strength, all under the regulation of the sporting proprietor. In Manchester, areas such as Newton Heath developed their own communities for pedestrianism and, through entrepreneurial innovation and investment, the Oldham Road became a hotspot for athletic competition throughout much of the nineteenth century. Within these communities, there was a reliance on the individual to cultivate and maintain athletic interest through their endorsement and promotion of, and their continued investment in, sporting entertainment. The relationship between entrepreneurial sportsmen and public houses has long been noted and there are abundant examples of individuals who combined their sporting activities with the role of licensee, but these are usually limited in scope and are overtly descriptive narratives that do little beyond documenting the individual achievements of their subjects. The traditional biographical method, whereby individual profiles are constructed through the uncovering of historical detail, is normally employed within the sport history discipline but this requires re-evaluation if a more complete picture of sport is to be established. Further biographical methods, such as collective biography and prosopography, whereby individuals are collectively studied through more measured techniques, should be applied to give further analysis of the impact of individuals within a specific sporting environment. This study uses all three approaches, biography, prosopography and collective biography, to give a more nuanced narrative that uncovers the changing nature of pedestrianism within nineteenth-century Manchester. Each chapter utilises a different biographical approach to explore a unique aspect of Manchester pedestrianism and gives further recognition to the previously anonymous population that helped to create a diverse hub for athletic entertainment. Although several themes permeate all three narratives, each method has its own outcomes, which provide alternative interpretations and perspectives on Manchester’s sporting history. Whilst pedestrianism is used as an exemplar, the study intends to highlight the importance of the individual, as opposed to national organisations, in telling the story of nineteenth-century sport.

Le chapitre métropolitain de Besançon compte quarante-cinq chanoines dirigés par un doyen. Ce corps social a pour fonctions de desservir les deux cathédrales de Besançon, d'élire et de conseiller l'archevêque.L'étude de leurs origines géographiques et sociales, de leurs carrières et de leurs actions politiques permet de comprendre les relations de ce chapitre et de l'Etat bourguignon au XVème siècle. Cette étude est essentiellement réalisée par le biais des actes et des délibérations capitulaires. Elle s'accompagne de deux annexes proposopographiques.Le quartier capitulaire est un premier indice du mode et du niveau de vie des chanoines. La seconde moitié du XVème siècle est florissante : les maisons canoniales, souvent ruinées laissent la place à des bâtiments de meilleur qualité, les salles communes et les cathédrales subissent des travaux de réfection et d'embellissement.Entre 1404 et 1477, la collation ordinaire des quarante cinq prébendes canoniales reste majoritaire. Mais les ducs de Bourgogne, émettent des recommandations qui infléchissent le recrutement : la noblesse comtoise est remplacée par des membres de l'administration ducale, souvent d'origine bourgeoise, comtoise ou bourguignonne.Les cumuls et l'absentéisme sont fréquents à partir de 1440, entraînant une moins bonne discipline et des difficultés à desservir correctement le culte. Paradoxalement, la présence des membres de l'administration bourguignonne dans la chapitre élève la culture juridique et améliore la gestion du temporel.Au XVème siècle, l'espace comtois s'articule autour d'une capitale religieuse, Besançon, d'un pôle économique et financier, Salins et d'une capitale politique, Dole. On constate qu'une grande part des dignitaires du chapitre bisontin a une carrière antérieure à la collégiale Saint-Anatoile de Salins et a des liens familiaux avec les membres du Parlement dolois.Le chapitre et les archevêques font face à des luttes violentes avec la Commune entre 1390 et 1452. Les archevêques Alors que Girard d'Athies et Thiébaut de Rougemont sont des courtisans qui imposent leur puissance, Jean de Rochetaillée, diplomate de talent allié aux cercles polinois négocie le traité de Rouen de 1435. Son décès entraîne une crise de succession où le concile de Bâle est mêlé. Les relations du chapitre avec Quentin Ménard, que le duc impose, restent très froides. Enfin, le chapitre se montre capable de s'opposer aux volontés du duc en s'appuyant sur le Parlement de Dole et en trouvant un allié en Charles de Neuchâtel, un grand noble comtois, archevêque entre 1463 et 1498. / Besançon's urban chapter was a social unit composed of forty-five canons, led by a Dean. This order's role was to organize the service in Besançon's cathedrals, to elect the archbishop, and to advise him on important matters. Studying the social background and careers of its members allows us to better understand how Besançon's chapter fit into the political life of the state of Burgundy in the 15th century. This study's main sources are the chapter's deliberations and official records. Two prosopographical appendices supplement them.Studying the chapter's district yields the first clues as to the canons' lifestyle and social status. Built on a hillside, it was surrounded by a fortified wall. The Sainte-Brigide hospital, the capitular rooms and the archives were all shared buildings. The second half of the 15th century was also characterised by important works of renovation and improvement of their houses ans of both cathedrals.From 1404 to 1477, the usual mode of recruitment was through cooptation; the dukes of Burgundy would issue recommendations, which would in turn influence the selective process through which canons were nominated. The nobility of Franche-Comté which served the state of Burgundy was gradually replaced by members of the Duchy's civil service, often originating from Burgundy's or Franche-Comté's middle-classes. From 1440 onwards, it became more and more common for canons to hold several jurisdictions, or to fail to attend meetings regularly. This led to a loosening of discipline as well as difficulties in holding religious services. However, a growing relationship with Burgundy's administration led to the improvement of the chapter's legal knowledge as well as the management of worldly matters.Throughout the 15th century, three cities were at the heart of Franche-Comté: Besançon, its religious capital, Salins, its financial and economic centre, and, finally, Dole, its political heart. Most of the chapter's dignitaries had started their careers in the collegiate church Saint-Anatoile of Salins, and had family ties with members of the Parliament in Dole.Between 1390 and 1452, the chapter and the archbishops had to face violent struggles with the town authorities. The archbishops Girard d'Athies and Thiébaut de Rougemont were courtiers who had no qualms in imposing their own power. Jean de Rochetaillée, who came after them, was a diplomat allied to the political circles in Poligny, and had artfully negociated the Treaty of Rouen in 1435. His death led to conflicts regarding his succession, in which the Basel council got involved. The chapter's relationship with Quentin Ménard remained very distant, since his presence had been imposed by the Duke. The chapter finally demonstrated it was capable of resisting the Duke's will by relying on the Dole Parliament and by forging an alliance with Charles de Neuchâtel, who belonged to the Franche-Comté nobility and was archbishop from 1463 to 1498.

Les gens de savoir, évêques et chanoines, abbé et moines, chanceliers et secrétaires, baillis et sénéchaux, procureurs et avocats, notaires et professeurs, médecins, composent la majeure partie du haut-clergé, des gens de justice et des cadres de l’administration ducale en Bretagne, à la fin du Moyen Âge. Majoritairement formés en droit dans les universités du royaume de France (Paris, Angers), beaucoup reviennent faire carrière dans le duché, au service de l’Église, de la Justice, du duc et de son administration, qu’ils contribuent à développer à la fin du XIVe siècle et au cours du XVe siècle. Ce faisant, ils ne négligent pas leur propre réussite professionnelle et personnelle, cumulant pour certains offices et revenus. Cette étude retrace leurs origines, leur parcours, leurs ambitions, leurs succès et leurs échecs pour s’assurer une place dans la société et au-delà, éclaire aussi le fonctionnement des différents secteurs professionnels dans lesquels ils évoluent. / People of science, bishops and canons, abbots and monks, chancelors and secretaries, bailiffs and seneschals, prosecutors and atorneys, notaries and professors, medical practitioners, make the most part of the high-clergy, the justice people and the ducal administrative executives in Britanny, at the end of the Middle Ages.Mostly trained in law in universities of the Kingdom of France (Paris, Angers), many come back to make a carreer in the duchy, serving the Church, the Justice, the duke and his administration, contributing to their developpement from the end of the 14th century and during the 15th century. In their tasks, they do not neglect their own professionnal and personnal success, some cumulating positions and incomes.This study tracks back their origins, their career path, their aspirations, their successes and failures in securing a position in society and beyond, also enlightening on the workings of the various professionnal branches in which they evolve.

Cette thèse présente l'intérêt d'étudier de façon globale et générale, et non plus parcellaire, le milieu des explorateurs français de la fin du XIXe siècle, pour découvrir plus en profondeur leurs personnalités, leurs motivations, les cursus qui les ont menés à l'exploration, les missions qu'ils ont accomplies, les résultats qu'ils ont obtenus, etc. C’est aussi le moyen d'établir une véritable sociologie historique des explorateurs en abordant ce milieu dans sa totalité et sa complexité, en tenant compte évidemment des plus illustres mais aussi en s'intéressant à ceux dont les noms ont été oubliés, passés sous silence ou peu évoqués. Ce travail permet de mettre en perspective et d'établir des comparaisons entre des explorateurs ayant évolué sur des aires géographiques et à des époques différentes. De plus, ces explorateurs n'auraient pas existé sans soutien, sans réseau, sans l'appui de milieux intellectuels, économiques et financiers, politiques, scientifiques, … Aussi, cette thèse est-elle l’occasion de mettre au jour l'existence de ces réseaux d'influence et d'entreprise coloniale, d'en découvrir les moyens d'action et les ressorts de leur activité. En ce sens, cette étude permet d’appréhender de l'intérieur à la fois les missions de terrain et leurs commanditaires plus ou moins intéressés à l'exploration. En définitive, cette thèse non seulement aide à mieux comprendre ce que l'on appelle le phénomène de la colonisation, par une meilleure connaissance des principaux acteurs, mais encore éclaire une fraction tout à fait originale et mal connue de la société française. / This thesis presents the interest of studying in a comprehensive and general way, rather than in a fragmented one, the mid of French explorers in the late nineteenth century, to discover more deeply their personalities, motivations, curricula that led them to exploration, the missions they have accomplished, the results they have achieved, etc. This thesis is also the means of establishing a true historical sociology of explorers addressing this environment in its totality and complexity, obviously taking account of the most famous ones but also by focusing on those whose names have been forgotten, ignored or little discussed. This work put into perspective and issues comparisons between explorers who have evolved in various geographic areas and at different periods. Moreover, these explorers would not have existed without support, without network, without support of intellectual, economic and financial, political, scientific connections... This thesis also is the opportunity to uncover the existence of these networks of influence and of colonial enterprise, to discover the means of action and to highlight the means of their business. In this sense, this study makes us understand from the inside both field missions and their sponsors more or less interested in exploration. Overall, this thesis not only helps to better understand what is called the phenomenon of colonization, through a better understanding of the main players, but highlights a completely original fraction and little known of the French society.

La présente recherche appréhende l’université de Besançon et ses étudiants dans les dernières décennies de l’Ancien Régime. Les 1300 étudiants inscrits entre 1767 et 1789 sont étudiés à travers leur origine sociale et géographique, leur évolution socio-professionnelle et leur cursus. La peregrinatio academica comtoise vers d’autres universités françaises est aussi abordée. L’université, pour sa part, est analysée dans son fonctionnement interne (gestion financière et seigneuriale, étude des locaux). Le corps enseignant est examiné sous le prisme du recrutement et des carrières respectives des professeurs. La faculté de droit, qui accueille le plus d’étudiants, voit nombre de ses diplômés occuper une place notable dans la société comtoise jusqu’au début du XIXe siècle. Les diplômés de celle de médecine font de la Franche-Comté une province riche en praticiens. La faculté de théologie est surtout réduite à octroyer des doctorats à des clercs ambitieux. À travers cette recherche, l’on s’est attaché à brosser le portrait et le destin d’une génération de l’élite comtoise, placée à la lisière de l’Ancien Régime et de l’époque des révolutions. / The present research deals with the university of Besançon (France) and its students in the last decades of the Ancien Régime. 1300 students registered between 1767 and 1789 are studied through their social and geographical origins, their social and occupational evolution and their studies. The peregrinatio academica towards other French universities is alsoapproached. The university, for its part, is analyzed in its internal functioning (financial and seigneurial management, study of buildings). The teaching profession is examined under the prism of the recruitment and the respective careers of the professors. The faculty of law, whichwelcomes most students, sees a lot of its graduates occupying a notable position in the society of Franche-Comté until the beginning of the XIXth century. The graduates of the faculty of medicine make Franche-Comté a province rich in practitioners. The faculty of theology is reduced to grant doctorates to ambitious clerks. Through this research, we have attempted to paint the portrait and the fate of a generation of Franche-Comté’s elite, from the last decades of the Ancien Régime to the age of revolutions.