An accurate and generalized global retrieval algorithm from satellite observations is a prerequisite to understand the radiative effect of atmospheric aerosols on the climate system. Current operational aerosol retrieval algorithms are limited by the inversion schemes and suffering from the non-uniqueness problem. In order to solve these issues, a new algorithm is developed for the retrieval of non-spherical dust aerosol over land using multi-angular radiance and polarized measurements of the POLDER (POLarization and Directionality of the Earth’s Reflectances) and wide spectral high-resolution measurements of the MODIS (MODerate resolution Imaging Spectro-radiometer). As the first step to account for the non-sphericity of irregularly shaped dust aerosols in the light scattering problem, the spheroidal model is introduced. To solve the basic electromagnetic wave scattering problem by a single spheroid, we developed an algorithm, by transforming the transcendental infinite-continued-fraction-formeigen equation into a symmetric tri-diagonal linear system, for the calculation of the spheroidal angle function, radial functions of the first and second kind, as well as the corresponding first order derivatives. A database is developed subsequently to calculate the bulk scattering properties of dust aerosols for each channel of the satellite instruments. For the purpose of simulation of satellite observations, a code is developed to solve the VRTE (Vector Radiative Transfer Equation) for the coupled atmosphere-surface system using the adding-doubling technique. An alternative fast algorithm, where all the solid angle integrals are converted to summations on an icosahedral grid, is also proposed to speed-up the code. To make the model applicable to various land and ocean surfaces, a surface BRDF (Bidirectional Reflectance Distribution Function) library is embedded into the code. Considering the complimentary features of the MODIS and the POLDER, the collocated measurements of these two satellites are used in the retrieval process. To reduce the time spent on the simulation of dust aerosol scattering properties, a single-scattering property database of tri-axial ellipsoid is incorporated. In addition, atmospheric molecule correction is considered using the LBLRTM (Line-By-Line Ra- diative Transfer Model). The Levenberg-Marquardt method was employed to retrieve all the interested dust aerosol parameters and surface parameters simultaneously. As an example, dust aerosol properties retrieved over the Sahara Desert are presented.

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The direct and indirect effects of aerosols on the hurricane ‘Katrina’ have been investigated using the WRF model with a two-moment bulk microphysical scheme and modified Goddard shortwave radiation scheme. Simulations of the hurricane ‘Katrina’ are conducted under the three aerosol scenarios: 1) the clean case with an aerosol number concentration of 200 cm-1, 2) the polluted case with a number concentration of 1000 cm-1, and 3) the aerosol radiative effects (AR) case with same aerosol concentration as polluted case but with a modified shortwave radiation scheme. The polluted and AR cases have much larger amounts of cloud water and water vapor in troposphere, and the increased cloud water can freeze to produce ice water paths. A tropical cyclone in dirty and dusty air has active rainbands outside the eyewall due to aerosol indirect effects. The aerosol direct effect can lead to the suppressing of convection and weakening of updraft intensity by warming the troposphere and cooling the surface temperature. However, these thermal changes in atmosphere are concerned with the enhanced amounts of cloud hydrometeors and modification of downdraft and corresponding the low level winds in rainband regions. Thus, the AR case can produce the enhanced precipitation even in the weakest hurricane. When comparing the model performance between aerosol indirect and direct effect by ensemble experiments, the adjustment time of the circulation due to modification of the aerosol radiative forcing by aerosol layers may take a longer time than the hurricane lifetime, and the results from the simulated hurricane show that it is more sensitive to aerosol indirect effects which are related to the cloud microphysics process changes. From this aerosol study, we can suggest that aerosols can influence the cloudiness, precipitation, and intensity of hurricanes significantly, and there may be different results in the meso-scale convective clouds cases. The hurricane system is a large and complex convective system with enormous heating energy and moistures. Moreover, relationships between various hydrometeors in hurricane systems are difficult to isolate and thus, it needs further study with more realistic cloud microphysical processes, aerosol distributions, and parameterizations.

The fundamental physics governing wildland fire spread are still largely misunderstood. This thesis was motivated by the need to better understand the role of radiative and convective heat transfer in the ignition and spread of wildland fires. The focus of this work incorporated the use of infrared thermographic imaging techniques to investigate fuel particle response from three different heating sources: convective dominated heating from an air torch, radiative dominated heating from a crib fire, and an advancing flame front in a laboratory wind tunnel test. The series of experiments demonstrated the uniqueness and valuable characteristics of infrared thermography to reveal the hidden nature of heat transfer and combustion aspects which are taking place in the condensed phase of wildland fuelbeds. In addition, infrared thermal image-based temperature history and ignition behavior of engineered cardboard fuel elements subjected to convective and radiative heating supported experimental findings that millimeter diameter pine needles cannot be ignited by radiation alone even under long duration fire generated radiant heating. Finally, fuel characterization using infrared thermography provided a better understanding of the condensed phase fuel pyrolysis and heat transfer mechanisms governing the response of wildland fuel particles to an advancing flame front.

Les chondrites carbonées (CCs) sont des objets primitifs accrétés lors de la formation du Système Solaire. Composées en grande partie de chondres, de matrice et d'inclusions réfractaires, elles ont enregistré les hétérogénéités chimiques, isotopiques et minéralogiques de la nébuleuse solaire. Contrairement aux autres classes de chondrites, la grande majorité des CCs sont primitives (types pétrologiques 1 à 3). Elles n'ont donc pas subi de métamorphisme important sur leur corps parent. Toutefois, un groupe de CCs, les CKs, montre un métamorphisme thermique intense (types pétrologiques 4 à 6). Ces chondrites sont caractérisées par des matrices recristallisées, des olivines équilibrées à ∼Fa31, un degré d'oxydation important (olivines riches en NiO, rapport métal/magnétite proche de zéro), des teneurs en éléments réfractaires lithophiles intermédiaires aux CVs et aux COs, ou encore des compositions isotopiques en oxygène se situant dans le champ défini par les CVs et les COs. Les CKs ont été peu étudiées jusqu'au début des années 90, car peu nombreuses (seulement 210 classifiées au 6 décembre 2011) et de petite taille (masse médiane ∼33,5g). Leurs compositions isotopiques et chimiques laissent supposer l'existence d'un lien génétique avec les CV3. Les découvertes récentes de nouvelles CKs depuis 1990, et notamment de CK3 par le biais de collectes systématiques au Sahara et en Antarctique, permettent l'étude détaillée de l'évolution métamorphique des CKs, notamment à la transition 3-4. Ce travail a pour but de caractériser les conditions dans lesquelles s'est déroulé cet épisode métamorphique, et grâce à l'observation de plusieurs CK3-4, d'étudier la relation CV-CK. La caractérisation détaillée de l'évolution métamorphique de 19 CKs dont 5 CK3 a permis de confirmer que les différences observées entre les divers composants chondritiques (abondance, minéralogie, texture) des CVs et des CKs peuvent être expliquées par un épisode thermique secondaire de HT-BP (∼300-650°C) en conditions oxydantes (∼NNO). De plus, l'analyse de profils de diffusions dans les chondres des CKs indique des durées de métamorphisme intermédiaires à celles communément invoquées pour du choc (de quelques secondes à quelques jours) et pour la désintégration d'éléments à courte durée de vie (plusieurs millions d'années). Une série d'expériences réalisées en four 1 atmosphère avec contrôle de la fugacité d'oxygène nous a permis de reproduire les textures caractéristiques des CKs et d'obtenir une teneur en fer d'équilibre des olivines des CVs, valeur proche de celle mesurée dans les CKs. Cela semble donc confirmer que les CKs sont des CVs rééquilibrées. Par conséquent, la classification actuelle de ces chondrites en deux groupes distincts devrait être modifiée afin de rendre compte de l'existence de cette série métamorphique CV-CK continue. Nous proposons de considérer le chauffage radiatif comme cause possible du métamorphisme des CKs. Un modèle numérique nous a permis de confirmer que des météoroïdes carbonés avec des périhélies situés entre 0,07 et 0,15 UA peuvent être chauffés à des températures pouvant aller jusqu'à 780°C. Les tailles pré-atmosphériques estimées pour les CV-CK (de quelques centimètres à 2,5 mètres) sont compatibles avec ce type de processus. La fragmentation d'un corps parent homogène de type CV (possiblement l'astéroïde à l'origine de la famille d'Eos) pourrait former des météoroïdes qui, sous l'effet de phénomènes de résonances, seraient redirigés vers l'intérieur du Système Solaire et pourraient ainsi être métamorphisés par chauffage radiatif. Ce type de processus thermique secondaire n'étant efficace que pour de petits fragments d'astéroïdes, il ne doit pas être considéré comme un processus corps-parent stricto sensu.

When probing the inner structures of unresolved astrophysical sources, spectropolarimetry has proven to be a solid tool, both independent and complementary to spectral and timing analyses. In this thesis, I theoretically explore the polarization of Active Galactic Nuclei (AGN), which are powered by accretion onto supermassive black holes and often reveal significant mass outflows. Their emission is strongly anisotropic and the standard model of AGN postulates that the anisotropy is caused by a confinement of the radiation in the funnel of an obscuring body of circumnuclear dust; the radiation is thus forced to escape along the funnel where it photo-ionizes conically shaped outflows. The asymmetrical configuration explains an observational dichotomy where AGN properties are characterized according to the observer's line-of-sight. However, AGN observations differ significantly from one waveband to another and the broadband validity of the unified model has to be tested by a method that gives strong constraints on the AGN morphology. In this thesis, I subsequently investigate how morphological and composition constraints on the different substructures in thermal, radio-quiet Active Galactic Nuclei can be deduced from optical, UV and X-ray polarization properties.

Several steps are followed in order to evaluate the cycle as the title suggests. The diffusion absorption refrigerator (DAR) cycle performance is evaluated when using helium or hydrogen as auxiliary gas. A slight increase in COP is found when using helium, but it is not sufficient to justify the cost. A secondary simulation of an alternate dual-pressure cycle using a pump is done as feasibility comparison with the same parameters as the diffusion cycle. It was found that the second cycle is not acceptable due to high evaporator temperatures needed to ensure liquid enters the pump instead of partially evaporated solution. This would greatly increase the work input required for what essentially becomes a compressor. Optimisation of the DAR is evaluated by simulating the use of a rectification column and the effects of different design points on overall performance. Meteorological data for Potchefstroom, South Africa is used to perform a yearly analysis on the simulated cycle and to specify a suitable design point. The use of a radiative cooling system as heat sink for the system is then investigated and incorporated into the system model. Finally, the performance characteristics of the simulated DAR cycle are discussed, verified and compared with available data from similar research. It is shown that a 40% solution aqua-ammonia-hydrogen cycle driven by 526 kW of solar thermal energy at 130°C and a system pressure of 1.5 MPa can easily achieve a COP over 0.4 with an air-cooled absorber at 40°C and a water-cooled condenser at 35°C. A 231 kW refrigeration capacity at an average evaporator temperature of –20°C is achieved, satisfying the requirements for a domestic refrigeration system. / Thesis (MIng (Mechanical Engineering))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2013.

Several steps are followed in order to evaluate the cycle as the title suggests. The diffusion absorption refrigerator (DAR) cycle performance is evaluated when using helium or hydrogen as auxiliary gas. A slight increase in COP is found when using helium, but it is not sufficient to justify the cost. A secondary simulation of an alternate dual-pressure cycle using a pump is done as feasibility comparison with the same parameters as the diffusion cycle. It was found that the second cycle is not acceptable due to high evaporator temperatures needed to ensure liquid enters the pump instead of partially evaporated solution. This would greatly increase the work input required for what essentially becomes a compressor. Optimisation of the DAR is evaluated by simulating the use of a rectification column and the effects of different design points on overall performance. Meteorological data for Potchefstroom, South Africa is used to perform a yearly analysis on the simulated cycle and to specify a suitable design point. The use of a radiative cooling system as heat sink for the system is then investigated and incorporated into the system model. Finally, the performance characteristics of the simulated DAR cycle are discussed, verified and compared with available data from similar research. It is shown that a 40% solution aqua-ammonia-hydrogen cycle driven by 526 kW of solar thermal energy at 130°C and a system pressure of 1.5 MPa can easily achieve a COP over 0.4 with an air-cooled absorber at 40°C and a water-cooled condenser at 35°C. A 231 kW refrigeration capacity at an average evaporator temperature of –20°C is achieved, satisfying the requirements for a domestic refrigeration system. / Thesis (MIng (Mechanical Engineering))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2013.

Mass loss, in the form of slow stellar winds, is a decisive factor for the evolution of cool luminous giants, eventually turning them into white dwarfs. These dense outflows are also a key factor in the enrichment of the interstellar medium with newly produced elements from the interior of these stars. There are strong indications that these winds are accelerated by radiation pressure on dust grains, but the actual grain species responsible for driving the outflows in M-type Asymptotic Giant Branch stars are still a matter of debate. Observations of dust features in the circumstellar environment of these stars suggest that magnesium-iron silicates are possible wind-drivers. However, the optical properties of these silicate grains are strongly influenced by the Fe-content. Fe-bearing condensates heat up strongly when interacting with the radiation field and therefore cannot form close enough to the star to trigger outflows. Fe-free condensates, on the other hand, have a low absorption cross-section at near-IR wavelengths where AGB stars emit most of their flux.  To solve this conundrum, it has been suggested that winds of M-type AGB stars may be driven by photon scattering on Fe-free silicate grains with sizes comparable to the wavelength of the flux maximum, rather than by true absorption. In this thesis we investigate dynamical models of M-type AGB stars, using Fe-free silicates as the wind-driving dust species. According to our findings these models produce both dynamic and photometric properties consistent with observations. Especially noteworthy are the large photometric variations in the visual band during a pulsation cycle, seen both in the observed and synthetic fluxes. A closer examination of the models reveals that these variations are caused by changes in the molecular layers, and not by changes in the dust. This is a strong indication that stellar winds of M-type AGB stars are driven by dust materials that are very transparent in the visual and near-infrared wavelength regions, otherwise these molecular effects would not be visible.

Les DRAMs sont des mémoires fréquemment utilisées dans les systèmes aéronautiques et spatiaux. Leur tenue aux radiations doit être connue pour satisfaire les exigences de fiabilité des applications critiques. Ces évaluations sont traditionnellement faites en accélérateur de particules. Cependant, les composants se complexifient avec l'intégration technologique. De nouveaux effets apparaissent, impliquant l'augmentation des temps et des coûts de test. Il existe une solution complémentaire, le laser impulsionnel, qui déclenche des effets similaires aux particules. Grâce à ces deux moyens de test, il s'est agi d'étudier les principaux modes de défaillance des DRAMs liés aux radiations : les SEUs (Single Event Upset) dans les plans mémoire, et les SEFIs (Single Event Functional Interrupt) dans les circuits périphériques. L'influence des motifs de test sur les sensibilités SEUs et SEFIs selon la technologie utilisée a ainsi été démontrée. L'étude a de plus identifié l'origine des SEFIs les plus fréquents. En outre, des techniques de test laser ont été développées pour quantifier les surfaces sensibles des différents effets. De ces travaux a pu être dégagée une nouvelle méthodologie de test destinée à l'industrie. Son objectif est d'optimiser l'efficacité et le coût des caractérisations, grâce à l'utilisation de l'outil laser de façon complémentaire aux accélérateurs de particules. Enfin, une nouvelle solution de tolérance aux fautes est proposée : basée sur la propriété des cellules DRAMs d'être immune aux radiations lorsqu'elles sont déchargées, cette technique permet la correction de tous les bits d'un mot logique. / DRAMs are frequently used in space and aeronautic systems. Their sensitivity to cosmic radiations have to be known in order to satisfy reliability requirements for critical applications. These evaluations are traditionally done with particle accelerators. However, devices become more complex with technology integration. Therefore new effects appear, inducing longer and more expensive tests. There is a complementary solution: the pulsed laser, which trigger similar effects as particles. Thanks to these two test tools, main DRAM radiation failure modes were studied: SEUs (Single Event Upset) in memory blocks, and SEFIs (Single Event Functional Interrupt) in peripheral circuits. This work demonstrates the influence of test patterns on SEU and SEFI sensitivities depending on technology used. In addition, this study identifies the origin of the most frequent type of SEFIs. Moreover, laser techniques were developed to quantify sensitive surfaces of the different effects. This work led to a new test methodology for industry, in order to optimize test cost and efficiency using both pulsed laser beams and particle accelerators. Finally, a new fault tolerant technique is proposed: based on DRAM cell radiation immunity when discharged, this technique allows to correct all bits of a logic word.