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This study shows in Twain's Joan a mosaic work of French history and American folk humor. It points to Twain as an unacknowledged historian and scholar who, despite his biases and misgivings from his previous books and from his sources, fashioned Joan's story for an American audience while he stayed abroad in Florence and Paris with his family. The study focuses upon the historical and literary merits of Twain's Joan through a detailed analysis of Twain's notations in his French and English sources (Berkeley). It shows that Twain as Louis de Conte, chronicler and minstrel, faithfully retold Joan's story from his sources. Twain's Joan of Arc represents the literary, historical, and religious achievement of an unacknowledged American scholar who showed an outstanding youth of character, integrity, and purity.Throughout the narrative in his book, Twain reflected Joan's page and secretary Louis de Conte as his persona in the dual role of chronicler and minstrel. Twain extended another dual role to his second narrator, the Paladin as entertainer and troubadour. Early in the story, Twain as Conte brought out the events of the Hundred Years' War which led to the betrayal of the French nation and the exile of the French Dauphin by the Treaty of Troyes. Conte retold these events as chronicler and minstrel from Gower and Sepet, notations at Berkeley. Other sources such as Fabre, Sepet, Wallon among others were either used or consulted. The study points and according to his notations in these sources. It is in his dual role that Conte narrated Joan's mission from her household to Vaucouleurs, Chinon, Orleans, Rheims, and St. Denis--covering Books I and II, from Chabannes's book and occasionally from Sepet's with key episodes from Michelet's Joan, according to Twain's notations at Berkeley.Conte retold the events at Chinon, Orleans, Patay, and Paris among others as a chronicler of history, but as minstrel he interwove the narrative with humor or sorrow in a rhythmic pattern of repetitions that imitated the style of the Chansons de Geste. The pattern is noticeable in the narration of the battle scenes at Orleans, Jargeau, and Patay, including the repetition of Joan's wounds in each encounter. Moreover, Twain as the Paladin reflected the minstrel of the Chansons de Geste who entertained the townspeople of Orleans with yarns substituted for the boastful French "gabs" used by knights to boost up their morale on the eve of battles. Twain later raised the role of the Paladin to a troubadour of Joan's era who praised the heroine in a lyrical poem, or Rondeaux, in the style of Charles d'Orleans, a poet of that era.This study shows that Twain used several French and English sources for Book III in which he dealt chiefly with the trial and death of Joan. Twain used three significant sources for the trial at Rouen; namely, Gower, Msgr. Ricard, and Michelet--according to the out Michelet's biases and misgivings. Hence the study mentions the out, however, that when there seemed to be a debatable viewpoint between Msgr. Ricard and Michelet, Twain favored Michelet as the final arbitrator. The study refers the serious reader or scholar to the critic Gustave Rudler who in his works on Michelet's Joan has pointed two different versions of Michelet's Joan, one written when Michelet was sympathetic towards the Church and the other (1873) as he turned anticlerical. Twain used the 1873 edition with its biases!The study points out that at the outset of the trial at Rouen Twain did not condemn the whole Catholic Hierarchy. Twain as Conte, chronicler and minstrel, merely caricatured evil men in Church positions who sought power and wealth first even at the expense of an innocent young girl. Conte showed that Joan at Rouen was a victim in the hands of the unscrupulous Pierre Cauchon, Bishop of Beauvais, who--according to Gower--had been bribed with the office of Archbishop of Rouen by Cardinal Winchester of England with the stipulation that Cauchon obtained from the trial Joan's excommunication as a witch and her death at the stake. Twain as Conte reflected well established traditions in French history and official documents in which Pierre Cauchon has been held as the main culprit, for he alone had the power to save or condemn Joan, according to Regine Pernoud-a reputable modern French historian. Conte as minstrel could hardly miss the opportunity of inventing puns based upon the French connotation of the man's name, because Cauchon indeed had shown himself an evil man. Moreover, ever since the Trial of Rehabilitation or retrial of Joan of Arc, Bishop Cauchon has been upheld by at least two Popes in their condemnation of that man. Instead, the Popes have honored Joan as a saint!The study shows that Twain held in contempt the French King and his courtiers, the French Clergy, and the French nation for having abandoned their national heroine to the enemy without even attempting to raise a ransom for her deliverance! Twain as Conte also questioned the "real motives" for the King's endeavors towards the Retrial of Joan since he had forgotten the maid for twenty years. Despite Twain's biases in several parts of the book, the study shows Twain's Joan as a serious work of an unacknowledged scholar for a virtuous youth--St. Joan of Arc!

Adlerian Summer School, Green Park, Wendover, Bucks., England, August, 1999, 1997, 1996; Greek Adlerian Society, Athens, Greece, presented with Clair Hawes, February, 1998

Who was Joan of Arc? That was the first question in my mind before I began my journey of studying this remarkable young woman. I had no idea how special she was. I thought she was just another historical figure that gets lost in history books. All I really knew about her was that she was burned at the stake. What I didn't know was that she led a country's army into battle at the age of seventeen.The adaptation of Mark Twain's novel, Personal Recollections of Joan of Arc into a full length play involves in-depth research into French and English society, religion, war strategy, The Hundred Years War and many other aspects that affected the young Jehanne d'Arc. Research also included in-depth study of the life of Mark Twain. After months of research, the playwriting process began. The process ending with new knowledge in playwriting, dramatic structure and a work that reflects how Joan of Arc can inspire an individual as a true heroine. A staged reading of the play, Personal Recollections of Joan of Arc, was presented on Monday, December 3rd, 2012 at the Next Door in Johnson City, Tennessee.

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The following study is interested in Dorothy Wordsworth's formation of her unique authorial identity and environmental ethos. I attend to her poetry and prose, specifically her journals written at Grasmere and her Recollections of a Tour Made in Scotland (1874) to demonstrate how she shaped her individual voice while navigating her occasionally conflicting roles of sister and writer. My project begins with a chapter providing a selective biographical and critical history of Dorothy Wordsworth and details how my work emerges from current trends in scholarship and continues an ongoing critical conversation about Dorothy Wordsworth's agency and originality. In my analysis of Dorothy's distinct poetic voice, I compare selections of her writing with William's to demonstrate how Dorothy expressed her perspectives regarding nature, community, and her place within her environment. In my chapter on Recollections of a Tour Made in Scotland, I analyze the ways in which Dorothy's narrative embraces the tenets of the picturesque while simultaneously acknowledging the tradition's limitations. Her environmental perspective was inherently rooted in domesticity; the idea of home and her community connections influenced how she engaged with and then recorded the environments she traveled to and the people she met. My project concludes by demonstrating how Dorothy Wordsworth's environmental ethos relates to the values promoted by modern environmental writers. Dorothy was intimately connected to her home and environment and modern environmental protection and conservation efforts encourage human connection to home and place. I consider how modern environmentalist movements could benefit from embodying the empathy that Dorothy showed for the natural world in their practices today. / Master of Arts / My thesis argues that while Dorothy Wordsworth was intrinsically involved in her brother William's poetic process, she actively created a unique writerly identity that can be detected throughout her journals and poems. My project begins with a chapter detailing how my work emerges from current trends in Dorothy Wordsworth scholarship, including feminist and ecocritical studies. In my analysis of Dorothy's individual poetic voice, I suggest that through her distinctive style and her mingling of poetry and prose, Dorothy was strongly asserting herself and her perspectives even when they conflicted with William's. Dorothy's Recollections of a Tour Made in Scotland exemplifies her unique environmental perspective, which was influenced by her community-centered identity; this contributes to what she chooses to recollect in her journal. My project concludes by demonstrating how Dorothy Wordsworth's environmental ethos relates to the values promoted by modern environmental writers. Dorothy was intimately connected to her home and environment and modern environmental protection and conservation efforts encourage human connection to home and place. I consider how modern environmentalist movements could benefit from embodying the empathy that Dorothy showed for the natural world in their practices today.

Why does it appall us if the CEO of a German prime bank lays off his employees despite sufficient revenue? Why do we feel contempt for Klaus Zumwinkel, a well-known tax evader? Why is Bill Gates admired for donating billions of dollars to a foundation? The answer to these questions appears to be remarkably simple: Because one seems wrong whereas the other right. More precisely, it is either morally right or morally wrong. This dissertation deals with emotions that arise when we assess peoples’ actions. Such emotions can be described as moral emotions. On the one hand, I am particularly interested in how these emotions are created. On the other hand, the consequences of identifying these emotions and therefore the function of moral emotions take on a significant role for me as well. I proceed on the assumption that these emotions have a mediating role for subsequent actions. Therefore, the key issues are why we experience the emotions we have and moreover, what is to be expected when we feel these emotions. Here, moral emotions are of major importance when transitioning from thinking to acting. Weiner (2006) and Rudolph, Roesch, Greitemeyer and Weiner (2004) previously described emotional reactions as mediating factors between cognitive processes (attributions) and subsequent behavior. Similar to this sequential model, moral emotions supposedly serve as a quick and efficient basis for decision-making regarding subsequent behavior as the heuristics advocated by Gigerenzer and Todd (1999). Here, moral emotions function as ‘heuristic cues’ that can channel our behavior. Even modern theories in computer and information science depict the human being as an “emotional machine” making use of emotionally driven programs in order to mediate between dynamic input factors from nature and adaptive output processes in terms of behavioral reactions. (Minsky, 2007) The methods of my research rely on a true role model: Charles Darwin. In his work “The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals” from 1872, Darwin also considered the question of what role emotions play and how they are created. Darwin (1872) proposed six potential methods to examine emotions in more detail (for an overview see Meyer, Schützwohl, & Reisenzein, 2008). Although Darwin mainly focused on the phylogenetic history and particularly dealt with the expression of mimicking as well as the congenital and inherited trigger conditions of emotional reactions, his findings and methods nevertheless were the role model for generations of emotion researchers and are still of great relevance (Izard, 1971, 1991, 1992; Lazarus, 1991a, 1991b, 1991c; Ortony, Clore, & Collins, 1988; Rudolph, Schulz, & Tscharaktschiew, 2013; Rudolph & Tscharaktschiew, 2014; Tomkins, 1963, 1962; Weiner, 2006). So far, Rudolph, Schulz and Tscharaktschiew (2013) have presented an empirically supported taxonomy of moral emotions and thereby have identified universally valid leading conditions of moral emotions. They are guided by attributional concepts as previously described by Heider (1958) in the context of his naïve analysis of action using forced-choice methods for selecting emotions with their subjects. Rudolph et al. (2013) divided moral emotions into emotions that assess one’s own actions (so-called actor emotions) or other people’s actions (so-called observer emotions). It becomes apparent that our moral identification of emotions depends on whether a) this action was considered as good or bad in terms of a moral standard, b) the goal of an action was or was not attained and c) the acting person made or did not make an effort in doing so. These dimensions are known as ought (a), goal-attainment (b) and effort (c). I am particularly interested in whether the dimensions discovered by Rudolph et al. (2013) will appear in autobiographical and free reports. Furthermore, I will examine more in depth the scenarios predicted by the theory and individual emotions in different test settings. All studies are conducted on an empirical basis using quantitative and qualitative methods that were previously applied by Darwin (1872) in modified form. First, I will examine whether the categories ought, goal-attainment and effort established by Rudolph et al. (2013) could be traced in recalled reports of emotional episodes using qualitative methods. Afterwards, extremely similar emotions will be distinguished in enhanced detail using a category system. Emotions such as anger, disgust and despite will be scrutinized in an experimental setting for the first time. It will be determined whether a sequential model of cognition emotion behavior already develops by the early stages using the complex emotions schadenfreude and sympathy with preschool children. For prisoners and people suffering from a personality disorder, the emotions of guilt and shame will be distinguished. In addition, the link to future behavior as well as neurological particularities of such groups of people will be taken into consideration. In my work, I will intensively scrutinize the category system assumed by Rudolph et al. (2013). Simultaneously, emotions that have been extremely similar or strongly connected thus far will be analyzed and described to a finer extent. Eventually, results will allow for a better understanding regarding the prediction of subsequent behavior. / Wieso empört es uns, wenn der Vorstandsvorsitzende einer deutschen Großbank trotz sprudelnder Kassen Mitarbeiter entlässt? Wieso empfinden wir Verachtung für Klaus Zumwinkel, einen prominenten Steuersünder? Warum bewundern wir Bill Gates für seine Milliardenschenkung an eine Stiftung? Die Antwort auf diese Fragen scheint denkbar einfach: Weil das eine falsch, das andere dagegen richtig erscheint. Genauer gesagt: Es ist moralisch richtig oder moralisch falsch. In meiner Arbeit geht es um eben jene Emotionen, die entstehen, wenn Handlungen von Personen bewertet werden. Solche Emotionen kann man als moralische Emotionen bezeichnen. Dabei interessieren mich einerseits die Entstehung, andererseits die Konsequenzen eines solchen Emotionsempfindens und damit die Funktion der moralischen Emotionen. Ich gehe dabei davon aus, dass diese Emotionen einen vermittelnden Charakter für nachfolgende Handlungen haben. Die entscheidenden Fragen sind also: Warum haben wir die Emotionen, die wir haben? Und: Was ist zu erwarten, wenn wir diese Emotionen verspüren? Dabei nehmen die moralischen Emotionen eine Schlüsselrolle auf dem Weg vom Denken zum Handeln ein. Bereits Weiner (2006) oder Rudolph, Roesch, Greitemeyer und Weiner (2004) haben emotionale Reaktionen als vermittelnde Größen zwischen kognitiven Prozessen (Attributionen) und nachfolgendem Verhalten beschrieben. Ähnlich diesem Sequenzmodell sollten moralische Emotionen wie die von Gigerenzer und Todd (1999) propagierten Heuristiken als schnelle und sparsame Entscheidungsgrundlage für das nachfolgende Verhalten dienen. Bei einer solchen Betrachtung fungieren die moralischen Emotionen als ‚heuristic cues’, die unser Verhalten bahnen können. Sogar moderne Theorien im Fachbereich Informatik zeichnen das Bild vom Menschen als „emotionale Maschine“, die gefühlsgesteuerte Programme benutzt, um zwischen dynamischen Input-Größen aus der Natur und adaptiven Output-Prozessen im Sinne von Verhaltensreaktionen zu vermitteln (Minsky, 2007) Meine Untersuchungen folgen in der Auswahl der Methoden einem großen Vorbild: Charles Darwin. In seinem Werk „Der Ausdruck der Gemütsbewegungen bei dem Menschen und den Tieren“ (im englischen Original: The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals) geht Darwin (1872) ebenfalls den grundlegenden Fragen nach, welche Funktion Emotionen haben und wie sie entstehen. Dabei legt Darwin sechs mögliche Methoden vor, um sich mit Emotionen genauer zu beschäftigen (für einen Überblick siehe Meyer et al., 2008).Zwar liegt Darwins Fokus dabei eher auf der Stammesgeschichte und er beschäftigt sich vor allem mit dem mimischen Ausdruck sowie den angeborenen und vererbten Auslösebedingungen emotionaler Reaktionen. Dennoch waren und sind seine Erkenntnisse und die von ihm verwendeten Methoden das Vorbild für Generationen von Emotionsforschern (Izard, 1971, 1991, 1992; Lazarus, 1991a, 1991b, 1991c; Ortony et al., 1988; Rudolph et al., 2013; Rudolph & Tscharaktschiew, 2014; Tomkins, 1963, 1962; Weiner, 2006) Bisher haben Rudolph, Schulz und Tscharaktschiew (2013) eine empirisch gestützte Taxonomie moralischer Emotionen vorgelegt und damit allgemeingültige vorauslaufende Bedingungen moralischer Emotionen identifiziert. Sie orientieren sich dabei an attributionalen Konzepten, wie sie bereits Heider (1958) mit seiner naiven Handlungsanalyse beschreibt und benutzen dabei vor allem hypothetische Szenarien und vorgegebene Emotionswörter zur Untersuchung der Emotionen ihrer Probanden. Moralische Emotionen unterscheiden Rudolph et al. (2013), in solche Emotionen welche eigene Handlungen (so genannte Actor Emotionen) oder die Handlungen anderer (so genannte Observer Emotionen) bewerten. Es zeigt sich, dass unser moralisches Emotionsempfinden davon abhängt, ob diese Handlung a) bezogen auf einen moralischen Standard als gut oder schlecht gilt, b) das Ziel der Handlung erreicht wurde oder nicht und c) sich der Handelnde dabei angestrengt hat oder nicht. Diese Dimensionen bezeichnen wir als ought (a), goal-attainment (b) und effort (c). Mich interessiert in dieser Arbeit vor allem, ob sich die von Rudolph et al. (2013) gefundenen Dimensionen auch in autobiografischen Schilderungen und in freien Berichten wiederfinden. Darüber hinaus nehme ich die Voraussagen der Theorie und einzelne Emotionen in verschiedenen Untersuchungssettings genauer unter die Lupe. Alle Untersuchungen sind empirischer Natur und orientieren sich an den quantitativen und qualitativen Methoden, die in abgewandelter Form bereits Darwin (1872) benutzte. Als erstes prüfe ich anhand qualitativer Methoden, ob sich die von Rudolph et al. (2013) gefundenen Kategorien von ought, goal-attainment und effort auch in erinnerten Schilderungen emotionaler Episoden nachzeichnen lassen. Stark ähnliche Emotionen werden anschließend mithilfe eines Kategoriensystems noch besser unterschieden. Die Emotionen Ärger, Empörung und Verachtung werden in einem experimentellen Setting erstmals genauer unterschieden. Die Frage, ob sich ein Sequenzmodell von Kognition  Emotion  Verhalten bereits in frühen Entwicklungsstadien ausbildet, wird anhand der komplexen Emotionen Schadenfreude und Mitleid mit Vorschulkindern untersucht. Bei Strafgefangenen und Personen mit Persönlichkeitsstörungen werden die Emotionen Scham und Schuld näher unterschieden. Außerdem werden hier Zusammenhänge mit zukünftigem Verhalten sowie neurologischen Besonderheiten solcher Personengruppen betrachtet. Meine Arbeiten unterziehen einerseits das postulierte Kategoriensystem von Rudolph et al. (2013) einem harten Test. Gleichzeitig werden bisher stark ähnliche oder zusammenhängende Emotionen feiner analysiert und beschrieben. Schließlich ermöglichen die Ergebnisse ein besseres Verständnis für die Vorhersage von nachfolgendem Verhalten.

ABSTRACT MURDERERS AND NONVIOLENT OFFENDERS: A COMPARISON OF LIFESTYLE, PAMPERING, AND EARLY RECOLLECTIONS by Richard A. Highland Alfred Adler outlined a theory of crime that suggests criminals suffer from a lack of social interest and have experienced parental pampering and childhood hyperactivity. He posited that these forces lead to criminality; however, his theory remains largely untested. A review of the criminological literature indicates that most theories of crime lack cognitive elements with adequate operational definitions. A convenience sample of male and female convicted murderers (n = 94) and nonviolent offenders (n = 76) derived from state prisons and parole populations were compared to find if differences in lifestyle attributes, parental pampering, and childhood hyperactivity exist. Prison inmates and parolees completed a demographic and criminal history questionnaire, the BASIS-A Inventory (Wheeler, Kern, & Curlette, 1993), Parental Behavior Questionnaire (Williamson, 1992), Paulhus Deception Scale (Paulhus, 1999), Wender-Utah Rating Scale (Ward, Wender, & Reimherr, 1993), and recorded three early recollections. MANOVA tests on murderer and nonviolent offender data using scales from the BASIS-A Inventory indicates that murderers scored significantly lower (p < .01) than nonviolent offenders on the Belonging Social Interest scale of the BASIS-A Inventory. A "W" aggregate profile on the BASIS-A Inventory data among the nonviolent offenders support prior research and validates the efficacy for using that instrument among criminal populations. MANOVA tests revealed that murderers had more childhood symptoms of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder than nonviolent offenders (p <.05); however, reported parental pampering did not vary by level of violence. Finally, a qualitative analysis of early recollections using the Early Recollections Rating Scale (ERRS; Altman, 1973) reveal moderate correlations between ERRS themes and Belonging Social Interest Going Along, and Being Cautious scales of the BASIS-A Inventory among all participants. Analysis of the data demonstrates partial support for Adler’s theory of crime. In particular, violent criminals exhibit less social interest, report higher levels of childhood hyperactivity, and more often report early recollections with themes of passivity and dependency than nonviolent offenders. Data support the usefulness of lifestyle appraisal among criminal populations as a means to improve methods for assessment and treatment of these offenders.

Abstract This thesis homes in on Anna-Liisa Antila-Kaljunen (1915–2006), a member of the first generation of the newly established Republic of Finland, exploring her life and work as artist and teacher educator. In addition to archival material, the thesis also utilizes personal recollections of Antila-Kaljunen. The principal aim of the thesis was to investigate how a female secondary school graduate of the 1930’s built a distinguished professional career in three fields: music, education and music education. Her term as the first publicly-elected organist of the Evangelical-Lutheran church made her a pioneer, whose status and professional competence were widely admired in contemporary press reports. Another aim involved comparing the education Antila-Kaljunen received to the development of musical education in Finland. Yet another strand of research examined the interaction between teacherhood and artistic identity. Serving as the methodological backbone of this thesis, life course analysis allowed tracking all changes within Antila-Kaljunen’s lifespan, including transitions, opportunities and restrictions, societal changes, human relationships or educational and work-related choices and activities. For a performing musician, competence and self-efficacy were deemed as central building blocks of agency, while narrative analysis comprised the main tool for studying recollections. In recollections of Antila-Kaljunen, three factors stand out: her significance, exemplarity and influence as teacher. Specific emphasis can be placed on mentoring, which appears to have formed a meaningful undercurrent for a number of her teacher-student relationships, particularly for students with a musical orientation. A key contribution of this thesis involves appreciating and acknowledging a teacher’s work in a wider perspective than just one lifetime. Moreover, the thesis points out how the Second World War shaped the lives and careers of the wartime generation and the choices they made. The road to performing artist was long and winding, but Antila-Kaljunen, who was talented and musically-inclined, eventually got to fulfil her educational and professional ambitions independently and without restrictions. Her achievements as a musician and teacher hinged on an ethos of versatility, manifested through goodness and beauty. / Tiivistelmä Väitöskirjassa tarkastellaan itsenäisen Suomen ensimmäiseen sukupolveen kuuluneen Anna-Liisa Antila-Kaljusen (1915–2006) elämää ja toimintaa taiteilijana ja opettajankouluttajana. Arkistoaineiston lisäksi tutkimuksessa on käytetty hänestä kerättyä muistelukerrontaa. Tutkimuksen tehtävänä oli selvittää miten 1930-luvun naisylioppilas rakensi ammattitaidoltaan korkealle noteeratut urat säveltaiteen, koulutuksen ja musiikkikasvatuksen maailmassa. Jakso Suomen evankelis-luterilaisen kirkon ensimmäisenä virkaan vaalilla valittuna urkurinaisena tekee hänestä uranuurtajan, jonka asemaa ja ammattitaitoa ihailtiin ajan lehdistössä. Toisena tehtävänä oli peilata Antila-Kaljusen saamaa koulutusta musiikkikasvatuksen kehitykseen Suomessa. Tutkimus etsii vastauksia myös opettajuuden ja taiteilijuuden vuorovaikutukseen. Metodologisena kehyksenä tutkimuksessa toimii elämänkulkuanalyysi, jonka avulla elämänkaaren aikana toteutuneet siirtymät, mahdollisuudet ja rajoitukset, yhteiskunnan muutokset, ihmissuhteet ja vaihtuvat koulutukselliset ja työhön liittyvät kuviot todennetaan. Esiintyvän muusikon kohdalla kompetenssi ja minäpystyvyys ilmentävät toimijuuden keskeisiä rakennusosia. Muistojen tutkimuksessa käytettiin apuna narratiivien analyysia. Opettajan merkitys, esikuvallisuus ja vaikutus tulevat näkyviin hänestä kerrotuissa muistoissa. Erityisenä löytönä voi pitää mentoriutta, joka näyttää olleen usean opettaja–oppilas-suhteen virityksenä varsinkin jos opiskelija oli musiikkiorientoitunut. Tämän työn antina voidaan pitää opettajan työn arvostuksen ja merkityksen havaitsemista laajemmin kuin vain yhden elämän perspektiivissä. Se tuo myös ilmi miten sota suuntasi sen kokeneen sukupolven elämänkaarta ja valintoja. Työ osoittaa, että taiteilijaksi oli pitkä tie. Lahjakas ja musiikillisesti orientoitunut Antila-Kaljunen sai toteuttaa koulutukselliset ja ammatilliset ambitiot kotimaassaan itsenäisesti rajoituksista riippumatta. Muusikkona ja opettajana toimiminen vaati monipuolisuuden eetosta, joka hänen kohdallaan toteutui hyvyyden ja kauneuden kautta.

This investigation used a descriptive approach to explore and evaluate early recollection changes of children in Adlerian counseling. The study addressed seven research questions regarding early recollection change for children in Adlerian counseling as compared with children not in Adlerian counseling. The treatment group was engaged in Adlerian counseling for 10 weeks. The investigator conducted pre-counseling and post-counseling interviews to collect six total early recollections from 9 subjects. The comparison group was not engaged in treatment for counseling. The investigator conducted interviews at an interval of 10 weeks to collect six total early recollections from 9 subjects. The Manaster-Perryraan Manifest Content Early Recollection Scoring Manual was used for analysis of early recollection content. Following training sesions, raters scored absence or presence of content variables in early recollections. Tables were employed to reveal findings of early recollection content change as addressed by the seven research questions of this study. A descriptive evaluation of' the data indicated that the treatment group manifested greater change in early recollection content as compared to the comparison group in six of seven research questions. On the basis of these findings, this study concluded that early recollections of children are a valid source of potential in measuring therapeutic progress and are a reliable measure of the thematic apperception of children. The data from this study provide a foundation from which to build the clinical utility of the early recollections of children. In view of these results, this study recommended the routine use of early recollections of children in Adlerian counseling.